Loading interactive map. Battlefield histories and sources are available below.
Battlefields of Britain and Ireland
Explore 191 battles from 43 CE to 1798 CE. This selective atlas includes known battlefield landscapes and disputed sites. Dashed areas are research suggestions, not proven battle boundaries. The Boudiccan revolt includes urban destruction sites as well as a disputed final battlefield.
Browse all 191 battlefield histories and sources
Medway
43 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
Roman troops overcame British resistance at a river crossing during the Claudian invasion. The river is usually identified as the Medway, but the exact crossing is uncertain.
Landscape: The lower Medway valley around Rochester provides a broad orientation area. Different proposed crossings should not be treated as one excavated site.
Location evidence: The identification rests on narrative, route and landscape arguments. The large circle is an editorial area of interest, not a surveyed battlefield.
Thames engagement (43 CE)
43 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
Roman forces fought a further river engagement after the battle usually identified with the Medway.
Landscape: The lower Thames region is a broad orientation area, not a confirmed crossing.
Location evidence: The modern location is disputed or unknown. This circle illustrates a proposed district or a broad research region, not an established battlefield.
Iceni revolt (47–48 CE)
47 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
Roman troops suppressed an earlier Iceni rising, distinct from Boudica’s revolt.
Landscape: The circle illustrates an East Anglian research region. No particular enclosure is identified as the attested defended position.
Location evidence: The modern location is disputed or unknown. This circle illustrates a proposed district or a broad research region, not an established battlefield.
The revolt is dated to around 47–48 CE; plotted at 47 CE.
Caratacus’s final battle
50 CE · Wales · Unconfirmed area of interest
The Romans defeated Caratacus in a final major field engagement. Its location remains unknown within the broad territory associated with the Ordovices.
Landscape: The marker indicates a broad mid-Wales interest region. It does not identify an individual hillfort or endorse legends attaching the battle to a place called Caer Caradoc.
Location evidence: Tacitus describes defensive terrain, not a named modern place. The displayed region must not be read as a confirmed archaeological identification.
Conventionally dated to 50 or 51 CE; plotted at 50 CE. The site is unknown.
Camulodunum: Boudiccan revolt
61 CE · England · Approximate location
Boudica’s forces destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum, modern Colchester. This is a destruction and siege landscape, not a mapped open-field battle.
Landscape: Colchester Castle occupies the site of the Temple of Claudius. Excavated burning layers across the Roman town provide evidence for a major destructive episode.
Location evidence: The Roman town and temple are identifiable, but the marker does not locate every assault or casualty. Archaeological destruction deposits should be distinguished from the tactical detail supplied by later Roman narrative.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Burnt pottery and household material
The Colchester Archaeological Trust describes samian pottery, amphora fragments, an inkwell and a burnt timber shelf from destruction deposits beneath the High Street.
Excavated urban destruction deposits
Archaeological source - Burnt building debris and carbonised food
Colchester’s heritage record describes fire-damaged pottery, glass and building material, with carbonised food recovered during later excavations. These are evidence for destruction of the town, not a recovered battle formation.
Documented destruction horizon
Archaeological source - Fenwick hoard: emerald-set gold ring
An emerald-set gold ring belongs to the Fenwick hoard excavated beneath Colchester High Street in 2014. The museum associates its burial with the Boudiccan attack of 60–61 CE. It is evidence for concealed civilian wealth during destruction, not a weapon recovered from a fighting line.
Excavated hoard associated with the revolt; civilian destruction context
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Colchester Museums, Colchester Castle
The museum identifies these objects as being at Colchester Castle. Check display availability before visiting.
- Fenwick hoard: pearl earrings
Gold earrings with surviving pearls belong to the same Fenwick hoard. Their burial is associated with the Boudiccan destruction of the town; the identity and fate of the owners cannot be established from the jewellery alone.
Excavated hoard associated with the revolt; civilian destruction context
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Colchester Museums, Colchester Castle
The museum identifies these objects as being at Colchester Castle. Check display availability before visiting.
- Hawkedon gladiator helmet: possible revolt loot
Found at Hawkedon, Suffolk, this helmet was not excavated in Colchester’s destruction deposits. The British Museum suggests it may have been looted during the revolt; that possible journey remains a hypothesis.
Museum-held object; proposed association with looting, not a battlefield find
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: British Museum
The museum documents this helmet in its touring exhibition material. Current venue and display must be checked.
- Cut-marked human jaw and lower-leg fragments
The British Museum’s Nero exhibition guide describes human bone from the Boudiccan destruction layer with weapon cuts. These are evidence of violence during the town’s destruction, not proof of the victims’ identities. The guide credits Colchester Archaeological Trust.
Excavated destruction-context human remains; identities unknown
Archaeological source - Bronze imperial head from the River Alde
This head, traditionally identified as Claudius and also reinterpreted as Nero, was found in Suffolk rather than in Colchester. Destruction or removal during the revolt is a proposed explanation, not a proven journey from the temple.
Museum-held sculpture; portrait and revolt history debated
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: British Museum
Museum collection and exhibition guides document the head. Current display location is unconfirmed.
Part of the revolt of 60–61 CE; plotted at 61 CE for timeline browsing.
Londinium: Boudiccan revolt
61 CE · England · Approximate location
The rebels burned early Roman London after the governor abandoned its defence. The marker indicates the Roman settlement north of London Bridge, not Westminster.
Landscape: The early settlement clustered around the Thames crossing and the City of London. Archaeological fire deposits survive below parts of the modern city.
Location evidence: Excavated remains establish the Roman settlement’s geography. Neither the modern Boudica statue nor later London legends establish the site of her final battle.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Burnt daub
London Museum catalogues building daub associated with the burning of Londinium during the revolt. This is structural evidence for the urban fire.
Museum-catalogued destruction material
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: London Museum · Catalogue NN18720b
The online catalogue does not confirm a display location. Check with the museum before visiting.
- Carbonised grain
The museum holds a sample of burnt grain dated to the period of Boudica’s revolt and the burning of London. It does not identify her army’s exact route through the town.
Museum-catalogued environmental evidence
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: London Museum · Catalogue NN18721
The online catalogue does not confirm a display location. Check with the museum before visiting.
- Eastcheap intaglio depicting Dea Roma
This onyx gemstone depicts Rome’s helmeted personification. The museum associates the cache with concealment during the revolt; the owner’s identity and intention are inferred. A revised museum record places the gemstones in a different pit from the beaker formerly associated with them.
Excavated cache; motive and revolt association interpreted
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: London Museum · Catalogue EST83[399]<58>
Online collection record; public display not confirmed.
- Eastcheap intaglio depicting Pegasus
This agate gemstone depicts Pegasus and belongs to the same cache. Its connection is to possible wartime concealment in London, not to a recovered battlefield formation. A revised museum record places the gemstones in a different pit from the beaker formerly associated with them.
Excavated cache; motive and revolt association interpreted
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: London Museum · Catalogue EST83[399]<60>
Online collection record; public display not confirmed.
- Eastcheap intaglio depicting a discus thrower
This onyx gemstone depicts an athlete with a discus and victory palm. It is a separately catalogued member of the Eastcheap cache, not a separate hoard discovery. A revised museum record places the gemstones in a different pit from the beaker formerly associated with them.
Excavated cache; motive and revolt association interpreted
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: London Museum · Catalogue EST83[399]<61>
Online collection record; public display not confirmed.
Part of the revolt of 60–61 CE; plotted at 61 CE for timeline browsing.
Verulamium: Boudiccan revolt
61 CE · England · Approximate location
Verulamium, beside modern St Albans, was attacked during the revolt. It is shown as an urban destruction area rather than a confirmed pitched battlefield.
Landscape: The Roman town lies largely west of modern St Albans around Verulamium Park and the River Ver.
Location evidence: The mapped area refers to the known Roman town. It does not imply that every fire deposit belongs to one assault or that an exact line of fighting has been recovered.
Part of the revolt of 60–61 CE; plotted at 61 CE for timeline browsing.
Boudica’s final battle: Watling Street hypothesis
61 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
The Roman victory ended the revolt, but its location is unknown. The main circle illustrates the Mancetter hypothesis, not a confirmed battlefield.
Landscape: Tacitus describes restricted ground backed by woodland and an open approach. Several places along or near the Watling Street corridor have been proposed; a matching landscape alone is insufficient proof.
Location evidence: Mancetter and Paulerspury are displayed as competing candidate areas. The ancient account names neither place, and no decisive archaeological identification is assumed.
Shown at 61 CE; the revolt and final battle are conventionally dated to 60–61 CE.
Find Boudica’s final battle: Watling Street hypothesis coverage on SevenSwords
Anglesey: Roman assault
61 CE · Wales · Approximate location
Roman forces crossed to Mona during Suetonius Paulinus’s campaign. The event is mapped as a regional assault, with no claim to an exact landing place.
Landscape: The Menai Strait separates the island from the mainland. Water conditions and later coastal change complicate reconstruction of the crossing.
Location evidence: Ancient narrative identifies the island, but the tactical details cannot fix a precise modern landing site. The circle is a broad reference area.
The campaign is dated to around 60–61 CE; plotted at 61 CE.
Defeat of the Ninth Legion relief force
61 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
The rebels defeated the force sent to relieve Camulodunum. Cerialis escaped with cavalry; this was not the destruction of the entire Ninth Legion.
Landscape: The circle is a broad eastern England research region. Neither the engagement’s position nor the relief route is securely identified.
Location evidence: Tacitus describes the failed relief but supplies no secure modern battlefield name. The regional marker is illustrative and is not a claim that the battle happened at its centre.
Part of the revolt of 60–61 CE; plotted at 61 CE. Location unknown.
Find Defeat of the Ninth Legion relief force coverage on SevenSwords
Ordovician attack on Roman cavalry
77 CE · Wales · Unconfirmed area of interest
A Roman cavalry force was heavily defeated shortly before Agricola’s arrival and counter-campaign.
Landscape: The circle indicates a broad north-Wales interest region; the unit’s camp and battle site are not securely identified.
Location evidence: The modern location is disputed or unknown. This circle illustrates a proposed district or a broad research region, not an established battlefield.
Conventionally associated with 77–78 CE; plotted at 77 CE. Location unknown.
Find Ordovician attack on Roman cavalry coverage on SevenSwords
Mons Graupius
83 CE · Scotland · Unconfirmed area of interest
Agricola’s Roman army defeated a Caledonian force. The battlefield remains unidentified; this is a broad north-east Scotland search region, not an identified site.
Landscape: North-east Scotland contains several proposed settings, but no agreed battlefield. Ancient narrative describes formations and terrain without a secure modern place-name.
Location evidence: Tacitus’s Agricola is fundamental to the debate, but is a literary account written after the campaign. The large circle is an editorial interest region, not a mapped archaeological site.
Conventional year; exact date uncertain.
Badon
500 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
A British victory remembered by Gildas. Both date and location are uncertain. The Bath region is one traditional suggestion, not a settled identification.
Landscape: The Bath region is one traditional suggestion among competing locations. Both the chronology and the geographical identification remain uncertain.
Location evidence: Early written testimony establishes a remembered victory, not the position of a modern battlefield. The marker must not be treated as proof that the battle was at Bath.
Conventional year; exact date uncertain.
Deorham
577 CE · England · Approximate location
A West Saxon victory reported in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The association with Dyrham is traditional and the tactical ground is uncertain.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. The displayed radius is an editorial area of interest and does not establish an exact site.
Chester
616 CE · England · Approximate location
Æthelfrith of Northumbria defeated a British army near Chester. Dates vary between accounts; the marker is a regional reference.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. The displayed radius is an editorial area of interest and does not establish an exact site.
Conventional year; exact date uncertain.
Hatfield Chase
633 CE · England · Approximate location
Edwin was defeated and killed by a coalition led by Penda and Cadwallon. Northumbrian royal authority collapsed after the defeat.
Landscape: The traditional setting is the low-lying Hatfield district near Doncaster, much altered by drainage and settlement.
Location evidence: The name identifies a district more securely than a tactical field. The circle represents an approximate traditional area.
Heavenfield
634 CE · England · Approximate location
Oswald defeated Cadwallon near Hadrian’s Wall. The traditional Heavenfield association does not establish the full battlefield.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. The displayed radius is an editorial area of interest and does not establish an exact site.
Winwaed
655 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
Oswiu defeated Penda, who was killed. The location of the river and battlefield remains disputed.
Landscape: The Leeds and Whinmoor district is one proposed setting. Other identifications associate the name with different waterways.
Location evidence: The early account gives circumstances rather than a secure modern location. Both the main circle and alternative are hypotheses.
Dun Nechtain
685 CE · Scotland · Unconfirmed area of interest
Pictish forces defeated Ecgfrith of Northumbria. Dunnichen and Dunachton are rival proposed locations. Select the alternative candidate to compare them.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. The displayed radius is an editorial area of interest and does not establish an exact site.
Englefield
870 CE · England · Approximate location
Local West Saxon forces defeated a Viking party shortly before the battle at Reading.
Landscape: The Englefield district west of Reading provides the conventional location.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Conventionally placed around 31 December 870; reconstructed dates for this campaign are approximate.
Ashdown
871 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
The West Saxons defeated a Viking force in the campaign of 871. The battlefield’s exact position on the Berkshire Downs is debated.
Landscape: The Berkshire Downs contain multiple proposed sites. This circle is a regional guide, not proof of a particular hill or historic tree.
Location evidence: Written descriptions and place-name arguments constrain a broad district without securely locating the battle lines.
Reading (871)
871 CE · England · Approximate location
The West Saxon assault on the Viking position was repulsed, and Æthelwulf was killed.
Landscape: The early settlement and ground around the Kennet–Thames confluence frame the traditional setting.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Basing
871 CE · England · Approximate location
The West Saxons were defeated after their success at Ashdown.
Landscape: Old Basing and the surrounding district provide an approximate reference.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Meretun
871 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
The West Saxons suffered another defeat in the campaign of 871.
Landscape: The modern identification is disputed. The Wiltshire circle illustrates one proposal, with a Dorset candidate shown separately.
Location evidence: The modern location is disputed or unknown. This circle illustrates a proposed district or a broad research region, not an established battlefield.
Edington
878 CE · England · Approximate location
Alfred defeated Guthrum’s army. Edington in Wiltshire is the usual identification, although precise deployments remain uncertain.
Landscape: The Wiltshire village and surrounding downland form the usual reference landscape.
Location evidence: The traditional association is stronger than any exact tactical reconstruction; the circle is not an archaeological battlefield perimeter.
Brunanburh
937 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
Æthelstan’s army defeated a coalition of Norse, Scots and Britons. The Wirral is a prominent hypothesis, with competing locations elsewhere. This circle represents only that hypothesis.
Landscape: The Wirral peninsula is a prominent candidate district. Other identifications lie outside the displayed circle.
Location evidence: Place-name arguments, landscape reconstruction and reported finds continue to be debated. No single modern identification is treated here as proven.
Maldon
991 CE · England · Approximate location
Byrhtnoth’s Essex force was defeated by a Viking army. Northey Island and its causeway frame the accepted battlefield interpretation.
Landscape: The causeway to Northey Island and the Blackwater estuary constrain the accepted interpretation. Tides are central to reading the narrative.
Location evidence: The Old English poem is evidence for the story and setting, but its literary purpose and survival must be considered before translating every passage into a map position.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Viking-period sword from Heybridge
The museum links a locally recovered sword to the period of Maldon. Its exact original recovery context is not established here, and age or proximity alone cannot prove use in the battle. It should not be used to settle the battlefield’s location.
Museum-held sword; suggested rather than proven battle association
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Combined Military Services Museum, Maldon
The museum promotes the sword as a collection highlight. Confirm current access before visiting.
Clontarf
1014 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
Brian Boru’s coalition defeated the forces of Dublin and Leinster and their allies. The battle extended across a landscape much altered by urban development.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. The displayed radius is an editorial area of interest and does not establish an exact site.
Assandun
1016 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
Cnut defeated Edmund Ironside in the decisive battle of their struggle for England. The traditional Ashingdon identification is disputed.
Landscape: Ashingdon in south Essex is the main displayed hypothesis; Ashdon in north Essex is shown as an alternative.
Location evidence: The place-name and later associations do not prove which Essex district was intended. Neither circle is a confirmed battle perimeter.
Brentford (1016)
1016 CE · England · Approximate location
Edmund drove back Cnut’s army in fighting by the Thames, during the campaign before Assandun.
Landscape: The Thames-side district at Brentford is identifiable, but the crossing and combat details remain reconstructed.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Stamford Bridge
1066 CE · England · Approximate location
Harold Godwinson defeated Harald Hardrada and Tostig shortly before the Norman invasion. The marker indicates the traditional battlefield vicinity.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. The displayed radius is an editorial area of interest and does not establish an exact site.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Axe and spear finds reported near Stamford Bridge
The Battlefields Trust reported an axe and spears recovered by detectorists working with the local heritage society. These are proposed evidence for the 1066 fighting; the report does not establish a surveyed battle boundary or a confirmed museum destination.
Reported early medieval weapon finds; battle interpretation provisional
Archaeological source
Hastings
1066 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
William of Normandy defeated Harold Godwinson on 14 October. Battle Abbey and the surrounding slopes anchor the accepted battlefield location; the marker is not a surveyed battlefield boundary.
Landscape: Battle Abbey and the slopes south of the abbey form the accepted battlefield landscape. Later building and changes to the ground affect reconstruction.
Location evidence: The abbey’s foundation tradition, early narratives and topography support the established setting. The exact shield-wall frontage and individual fighting positions are interpreted.
Fulford
1066 CE · England · Approximate location
The Norwegian-led army defeated the northern English earls south of York, shortly before Stamford Bridge.
Landscape: The approaches to York around Fulford and the low ground beside the Ouse and its becks frame the battlefield.
Location evidence: Documentary interpretation and landscape investigation identify the broad district. Drainage and development affect reconstruction of the medieval wet ground.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Iron-working debris and metal objects at Germany Beck
The Fulford project reports iron objects with hearth bottoms, slag and tuyère fragments. The investigators interpret this as possible post-battle metal recycling. Neither all the material’s dating nor its exclusive connection to the 1066 battle is established.
Research-project interpretation; battle association contested or provisional
Archaeological source
Alnwick (1093)
1093 CE · England · Approximate location
Malcolm III and his son Edward were killed during operations near Alnwick.
Landscape: The castle district and its approaches provide orientation; exact circumstances remain debated.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Crug Mawr
1136 CE · Wales · Unconfirmed area of interest
The Welsh won a major victory near Cardigan, weakening Anglo-Norman control in western Wales.
Landscape: Banc y Warren and the wider rising ground north-east of Cardigan are proposed settings.
Location evidence: Coflein relates the traditional location to Gerald of Wales’s route description, but notes uncertainty about whether Crug Mawr meant one hill or a larger area.
Llwchwr
1136 CE · Wales · Approximate location
The Welsh defeated their opponents in the Gower district during the rising of 1136.
Landscape: The plain between Swansea and the Loughor is the broad setting traditionally associated with the encounter.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Maes Gwenllian
1136 CE · Wales · Approximate location
Gwenllian’s force was defeated near Kidwelly, and she was killed.
Landscape: The Maes Gwenllian and Mynyddygarreg district provides the traditional setting.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Northallerton
1138 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
At the Battle of the Standard, an English army defeated David I’s Scots near Northallerton. The marker indicates the accepted battlefield vicinity.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Lincoln (1141)
1141 CE · England · Approximate location
Stephen was defeated and captured during the civil war known as the Anarchy.
Landscape: The city, castle and surrounding approaches anchor the setting; this is not the 1217 battle.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Wilton
1143 CE · England · Approximate location
Stephen escaped after a defeat at Wilton, while William Martel was captured.
Landscape: The town and abbey district west of Salisbury provide the reference setting.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Renfrew
1164 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Somerled was defeated and killed after his expedition reached the Clyde.
Landscape: The Renfrew and Clyde-side district is known, while later shorelines and urban growth complicate location.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Crogen
1165 CE · Wales · Unconfirmed area of interest
An encounter traditionally associated with the Ceiriog valley forms part of Henry II’s unsuccessful Welsh campaign.
Landscape: The Castle Mill and Ceiriog valley approaches near Chirk form the traditional setting.
Location evidence: Historic-environment records preserve the association and later commemoration, but the nature and exact ground of the engagement remain uncertain.
Fornham St Genevieve
1173 CE · England · Approximate location
The royalists defeated Leicester and his allies during the rebellion against Henry II.
Landscape: The Fornham district north of Bury St Edmunds is the traditional battlefield landscape.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Alnwick (1174)
1174 CE · England · Approximate location
A small English force surprised the Scots and captured their king.
Landscape: The castle and its neighbouring approaches frame the action, distinct from the battle of 1093.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Siege of Dover
1216 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
The castle resisted Louis’s attack during the First Barons’ War.
Landscape: The castle’s northern defences and approaches are central to the siege; the fighting resumed in 1217.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Lincoln (1217)
1217 CE · England · Approximate location
Royalists defeated the French and rebel army besieging Lincoln Castle, a decisive success for the young Henry III’s government.
Landscape: The castle, cathedral quarter, steep streets and lower town formed an urban battlefield.
Location evidence: Urban landmarks anchor the account, but individual street actions require documentary reconstruction. The marker is not a castle siege perimeter.
Bryn Derwin
1255 CE · Wales · Approximate location
Llywelyn defeated his brothers, consolidating his control within Gwynedd.
Landscape: The Bwlch Derwyn district on the Arfon–Eifionydd boundary is the proposed setting.
Location evidence: Coflein discusses chronicle and poetic evidence for this district. Fieldwork in 2014 did not recover material securely linked to the battle.
Largs
1263 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Fighting around stranded Norwegian ships at Largs formed part of Håkon’s campaign on the west coast.
Landscape: The shore at Largs and its approaches provide the regional reference. The coastline and town have changed considerably.
Location evidence: Written accounts locate the fighting around the shore, while an exact tactical footprint remains uncertain.
Lewes
1264 CE · England · Approximate location
De Montfort defeated the royal army and captured Henry III during the Second Barons’ War.
Landscape: The downs north-west of Lewes, the town and the routes towards the priory form distinct parts of the action.
Location evidence: Documentary evidence and topography locate the broad battlefield. The main engagement and later pursuit should not be reduced to one point.
Northampton (1264)
1264 CE · England · Approximate location
The royal army took Northampton during the campaign preceding Lewes.
Landscape: The medieval town, its defences and castle site west of the town centre frame this urban action.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Siege of Rochester
1264 CE · England · Approximate location
The baronial army attacked Rochester, but withdrew without securing the castle keep.
Landscape: The Medway bridge, town and surviving castle distinguish the separate stages of the siege.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Evesham
1265 CE · England · Approximate location
The royalists defeated and killed de Montfort, ending the immediate dominance of his baronial government.
Landscape: The Avon loop and the ridge north of Evesham constrain the battlefield landscape.
Location evidence: The geography and written sources identify the main setting. The memorial is not a complete map of the killing or pursuit.
Siege of Kenilworth
1266 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
The defenders held out for months before surrendering under pressure of supply and siege.
Landscape: The castle, former lake and surrounding approaches defined a siege landscape rather than one open field.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Stone projectiles associated with the siege
English Heritage reports recovered stone shot linked to the 1266 siege by comparison with earlier archaeological finds. Such evidence relates to siege warfare, not an open-field battle line.
Reported siege material; interpreted in the context of earlier finds
Archaeological source
Chesterfield
1266 CE · England · Approximate location
Royal forces surprised and defeated rebels at Chesterfield after Evesham.
Landscape: The medieval town and its approaches form the reference district.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Orewin Bridge
1282 CE · Wales · Approximate location
Llywelyn ap Gruffudd was killed during the campaign around Builth. The battle and his death should not be reduced to one exact point.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. The displayed radius is an editorial area of interest and does not establish an exact site.
Llandeilo Fawr
1282 CE · Wales · Approximate location
Welsh troops defeated an English force in the Towy valley during the war of 1282.
Landscape: Llandeilo, Ffairfach and the Towy crossings frame the proposed battlefield landscape.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Bridge of Boats (Moel-y-Don)
1282 CE · Wales · Unconfirmed area of interest
The English suffered a major reverse after crossing from Anglesey, with men cut off and drowned during the retreat.
Landscape: The traditional Moel-y-Don name is misleading: the bridge may have been farther north, near Bangor or Traeth Lafan.
Location evidence: Coflein discusses alternative northern crossings rather than securely locating the fight at the later ferry point. The main circle is a broad northern Menai interest area.
Dunbar (1296)
1296 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
An English army defeated the Scots near Dunbar during Edward I’s invasion of Scotland.
Landscape: The Spott and Dunbar district is the broad setting; the ground south of Dunbar contains competing reconstructions.
Location evidence: The battle’s association with the district is stronger than a precise deployment plan. The marker does not identify the later 1650 battlefield.
Stirling Bridge
1297 CE · Scotland · Located battlefield vicinity
William Wallace and Andrew Moray defeated the English army as it crossed the Forth. The medieval bridge stood upstream of the surviving stone bridge.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Falkirk (1298)
1298 CE · Scotland · Unconfirmed area of interest
Edward I defeated Wallace’s army, whose infantry fought in schiltrons. The exact battlefield location remains debated.
Landscape: Several locations around Falkirk have been proposed. The displayed circle is a district marker rather than a chosen battle line.
Location evidence: Narrative descriptions and later landscape change leave uncertainty about the precise ground. This entry is distinct from Falkirk Muir in 1746.
Dalrigh
1306 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Bruce suffered a defeat while retreating through the western Highlands.
Landscape: The Dalrigh district near Tyndrum forms the traditional setting.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Bannockburn
1314 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Robert Bruce defeated Edward II’s army. The general landscape is known, but the location and sequence of the second day’s fighting remain debated.
Landscape: The New Park and the ground south of Stirling form the main landscape, but the second day’s precise position remains debated.
Location evidence: Written accounts and topography constrain interpretations without fixing one universally accepted battle line. The monument is not proof of a complete deployment plan.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Medieval spur fragment from Redhall Farm
The Bannockburn 700 investigation recovered a medieval spur fragment at Redhall Farm. Its date and equestrian function make it relevant to the battle research, although a medieval object alone does not prove combat at its findspot.
Recovered survey find; battle connection interpreted
Archaeological source - Medieval stirrup from Carse Fields
A detecting survey recovered a medieval stirrup in the Carse Fields area. The project considers it alongside other equestrian finds when assessing the second day’s fighting, rather than as a standalone proof of the battle’s location.
Recovered survey find; contextual battle interpretation
Archaeological source - Early-fourteenth-century cross-shaped harness pendant
The project identified a decorated harness pendant with gilding and enamel traces. Its date and location support the investigators’ interpretation of fighting on the Carse, but it cannot identify a named rider.
Specialist-dated survey find; owner unknown
Archaeological source
Athenry
1316 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
O’Connor’s coalition was defeated near Athenry, and he was killed.
Landscape: The town and neighbouring countryside provide the broad reference district.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Dysert O’Dea
1318 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
De Clare was defeated and killed at Dysert O’Dea, weakening Anglo-Norman power in Thomond.
Landscape: The Dysert district north-west of Ennis is the historical setting; its later castle and monuments provide orientation rather than a full tactical plan.
Location evidence: Local historical studies identify the district. Precise approaches and phases of the fighting require more than a modern marker.
Faughart
1318 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
Edward Bruce was defeated and killed near Faughart, ending his campaign to secure the Irish kingship.
Landscape: The Faughart district north of Dundalk provides the regional reference.
Location evidence: Written evidence establishes the district and Bruce’s death. Later memorial associations do not locate every phase of the battle.
Myton
1319 CE · England · Approximate location
The Scots defeated a hastily assembled English force near Myton during a raid into Yorkshire.
Landscape: The Swale crossing and the low ground near Myton-on-Swale form the conventional setting.
Location evidence: The river and place-name constrain the broad district. Changing river conditions and uncertain movements prevent an exact footprint.
Boroughbridge
1322 CE · England · Approximate location
Royalist forces blocked the rebels at the Ure crossing. Hereford was killed and Lancaster was subsequently captured.
Landscape: The bridge and possible ford positions along the River Ure explain the defensive importance of the location.
Location evidence: The crossing is a secure reference, but a modern bridge is not a precise reconstruction of the medieval structure or riverbed.
Byland
1322 CE · England · Approximate location
The Scots broke the English position near Byland and forced Edward II to retreat.
Landscape: The Hambleton escarpment, routes up onto the high ground and the Rievaulx–Byland district frame the action.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Burton Bridge
1322 CE · England · Approximate location
Lancaster withdrew after the king’s forces overcame the obstacle of the Trent crossing.
Landscape: The bridge and alternative crossing routes near Burton-on-Trent defined the operation.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Dupplin Moor
1332 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Balliol’s smaller invading army defeated a Scottish host near Perth. The Scottish attack became crowded and suffered heavily.
Landscape: The Earn valley and high ground around Dupplin constrain the broad battlefield setting.
Location evidence: Historical accounts and terrain analysis support the district, while approach routes and individual positions remain reconstructed.
Halidon Hill
1333 CE · England · Approximate location
The English defeated a Scottish army attempting to relieve Berwick. Archery and difficult approaches shaped the result.
Landscape: The hill north-west of Berwick and the lower ground on the Scottish approach are central to reconstruction.
Location evidence: The named hill and documentary evidence locate the broad landscape. The point does not mark the extent of all shooting and pursuit.
Neville’s Cross
1346 CE · England · Approximate location
The Scots were defeated near Durham and David II was captured.
Landscape: The western approaches to Durham and the Neville’s Cross district provide the reference landscape.
Location evidence: The known district and historical descriptions guide interpretation, but urban growth has altered the ground considerably.
North Walsham
1381 CE · England · Approximate location
Despenser defeated rebels near North Walsham during the Peasants’ Revolt.
Landscape: The countryside south of the town and traditional battlefield district are the reference area.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Otterburn
1388 CE · England · Approximate location
James Douglas’s Scots defeated Henry Percy’s force in a border battle. Douglas was killed in the fighting.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. The displayed radius is an editorial area of interest and does not establish an exact site.
Hyddgen
1401 CE · Wales · Unconfirmed area of interest
Glyndŵr’s supporters defeated opponents in the uplands during an early phase of the revolt.
Landscape: The Hyddgen valley and Carn Hyddgen area in the Plynlimon uplands are the principal candidates.
Location evidence: The annalistic account supplies limited detail. Coflein identifies a proposed east-bank location, while explicitly recording uncertainty about the precise site.
Bryn Glas
1402 CE · Wales · Located battlefield vicinity
Owain Glyndŵr’s forces defeated Edmund Mortimer near Pilleth. The victory strengthened the Welsh revolt.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Medieval horseshoes and horse cheek-piece from the 2012 survey
The project recovered two horseshoes and a cheek-piece on higher ground. They establish medieval equestrian activity but were not accepted as firm evidence of the 1402 battle.
Recovered medieval equipment; battle association unconfirmed
Archaeological source
Homildon Hill
1402 CE · England · Approximate location
English archery helped defeat the Scottish army near Wooler, and Douglas was captured.
Landscape: The hill and its approaches north-west of Wooler provide the geographical reference.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Nesbit Moor
1402 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
A Scottish raiding force was defeated before the later disaster at Homildon Hill.
Landscape: The Nisbet district near Duns is the reference area; the encounter is distinct from Homildon Hill.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Shrewsbury
1403 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
Henry IV defeated the rebels led by Henry Hotspur Percy. Heavy archery and close fighting made this a costly royal victory.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Pwll Melyn
1405 CE · Wales · Approximate location
Royal forces defeated Glyndŵr’s supporters near Usk, capturing his son Gruffudd.
Landscape: The higher ground north and north-east of Usk Castle is the principal reference landscape.
Location evidence: Coflein combines documentary and archaeological discussion to locate the broad site. The exact fighting line is not implied by the marker.
Grosmont (1405)
1405 CE · Wales · Approximate location
Royal troops defeated a rebel force after an attack on Grosmont.
Landscape: The castle, settlement and surrounding Monnow-side district provide the geographical framework.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Harlaw
1411 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
A major battle near Inverurie checked Donald’s advance towards Aberdeen, with severe losses on both sides.
Landscape: The land around Harlaw north-west of Inverurie is the traditional battlefield district.
Location evidence: Written evidence and the surviving landscape identify the general site; later monuments are commemorative rather than exact markers of combat positions.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Human remains reported east of Harlaw House in 1837
The Scottish inventory records twelve individuals whose remains were neither adequately documented nor retained. A connection to Harlaw is possible, but no confirmed battle association can be established from that report.
Antiquarian burial report; battle association unconfirmed
Archaeological source
Lochaber
1429 CE · Scotland · Unconfirmed area of interest
The royal army defeated Alexander’s forces during his rebellion.
Landscape: The displayed region is a broad Lochaber reference, not an identified fighting line.
Location evidence: The modern location is disputed or unknown. This circle illustrates a proposed district or a broad research region, not an established battlefield.
Inverlochy (1431)
1431 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Donald Balloch defeated the royal force near Inverlochy.
Landscape: The castle and Lochy-side ground provide the main reference, distinct from Montrose’s battle of 1645.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Sark
1448 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
The Scots defeated the English near the western border.
Landscape: The Sark district near Gretna and the Solway margins is the traditional setting.
Location evidence: Accounts identify the border district, but the precise relationship of the armies to the river and marshes remains uncertain.
First St Albans
1455 CE · England · Approximate location
Yorkist forces broke into St Albans and defeated the royal army. Somerset was killed and Henry VI fell into Yorkist hands.
Landscape: The fighting took place in the streets and approaches of medieval St Albans, with the market area central to reconstructions.
Location evidence: The town is secure as the setting; modern street patterns help orient the visitor, but individual barricades and routes of penetration are reconstructed from accounts.
Blore Heath
1459 CE · England · Approximate location
Salisbury’s Yorkists defeated a Lancastrian army attempting to block their march. Audley was killed.
Landscape: The open countryside near Market Drayton includes the Hempmill Brook and ground traditionally associated with the opposing positions.
Location evidence: Topography and documentary reconstruction locate the battle near Blore Heath. The commemorative cross is a landmark, not proof of a particular casualty’s exact position.
Ludford Bridge
1459 CE · England · Approximate location
The Yorkist army disintegrated at Ludford after troops changed allegiance. The confrontation ended in flight rather than a full pitched battle.
Landscape: The crossing of the River Teme south of Ludlow and the Ludford approaches anchor the setting.
Location evidence: The river crossing is identifiable. Exact camp limits and the extent of any skirmishing remain less certain than the wider confrontation.
Northampton
1460 CE · England · Approximate location
The Yorkists overran the royal defensive position and captured Henry VI. Buckingham was killed.
Landscape: The battlefield lies around Delapré Abbey, south of the River Nene, where wet ground and a defended camp shaped the fighting.
Location evidence: The abbey, river and documentary descriptions constrain the location. The precise camp perimeter should not be inferred from this marker.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Heavy lead cannonball recovered after River Nene dredging
Northampton Museums describes a deformed lead ball weighing 1,121 grams, recovered after dredging in the 1970s and attributed to the 1460 battle. Its recovery is a chance find, not a controlled excavation.
Museum-published battlefield attribution; disturbed river context
Archaeological source - Smaller lead artillery ball recorded as museum find E0604
The heritage record lists a separate 460-gram lead ball found in the late 1970s and given to Northampton Museum. A connection with a small gun used in the 1460 battle is proposed, rather than demonstrated by a sealed deposit.
Recorded museum deposit; battle association probable
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Northampton Museum and Art Gallery · Catalogue E0604
The heritage record documents the museum deposit. Present display status is unverified.
Wakefield
1460 CE · England · Approximate location
Richard of York was defeated and killed after leaving the security of Sandal Castle. The Yorkist cause passed to his son Edward.
Landscape: Sandal Castle and the land towards Wakefield define the battlefield landscape. Later development has altered much of the ground.
Location evidence: The castle is the principal fixed landmark. The army’s deployment and the precise circumstances of York’s death remain debated.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Iron spearhead from the Portobello estate
Wakefield Museums identifies this spearhead as probably connected with the 1460 battle. It was found near Sandal Castle; the museum’s attribution should not be mistaken for a recorded combat position.
Museum attribution: probable battle connection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Wakefield Museums and Castles
The museum presents this object online. Its current physical display location is not stated.
Worksop
1460 CE · England · Approximate location
A poorly documented encounter at Worksop preceded the battle of Wakefield.
Landscape: The Worksop district is identifiable, but the tactical location is not securely fixed.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Towton
1461 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
Edward IV’s Yorkist army defeated the Lancastrians in a major Wars of the Roses battle. Archaeology has contributed evidence from this landscape.
Landscape: The plateau between Towton and Saxton, with the Cock Beck valley to the west, constrains the main battle and rout.
Location evidence: Archaeology and documentary landscape study support the battlefield identification. Burial evidence and artefact scatters do not establish every stage of the fighting.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Human remains from the Towton Hall mass grave
A mass burial discovered in 1996 was excavated and studied. Weapon injuries provide direct evidence for violence associated with the battle and its aftermath.
Excavated burial evidence
Archaeological source - Further human remains and skeletal trauma
Osteological work reported by the Towton Battlefield Society records sharp-force and blunt-force injuries among remains from different investigations. These must be understood by excavation context, not treated as one unchanging casualty total.
Published osteological analysis
Archaeological source - Fifteenth-century inscribed spur
The Society records a copper-alloy spur reportedly found on Towton Field and exhibited in 1792. Its fifteenth-century date is compatible with the battle, but this antiquarian find has no modern excavated context.
Reported battlefield find; battle association plausible, not proven
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Society of Antiquaries of London, Burlington House · Catalogue LDSAL127
Display status not confirmed. Check with the collection before visiting.
Mortimer’s Cross
1461 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
Edward defeated a Lancastrian force in the Welsh Marches, strengthening his position before becoming Edward IV.
Landscape: The traditional setting is the River Lugg valley near Kingsland and Mortimer’s Cross. Alternative deployments within the district have been proposed.
Location evidence: The place-name provides a district rather than a complete tactical plan. The marker and radius acknowledge continuing uncertainty about the precise ground.
Second St Albans
1461 CE · England · Approximate location
The Lancastrians defeated Warwick and recovered Henry VI. The victory did not lead to secure control of London.
Landscape: Bernards Heath and the northern approaches to St Albans form the traditional battlefield district.
Location evidence: The broad location is supported by narrative accounts, but urban expansion and competing deployment reconstructions prevent a precise footprint.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Round shot found at Bernards Heath in 2014
The Battlefields Trust attributes this cannon shot to the 1461 battle and reports its purchase for preservation in 2022. A return to St Albans Museum was then intended, not confirmed; current custody and display should be checked.
Recorded discovery; specialist battlefield attribution
Archaeological source
Ferrybridge
1461 CE · England · Approximate location
Fighting for the Aire crossing preceded Towton. Clifford was killed during the operations that followed.
Landscape: The River Aire crossing at Ferrybridge is the fixed reference. Fighting extended beyond the bridge itself.
Location evidence: The crossing can be located, but the sequence of skirmishes and later movements does not reduce to one exact point.
Twthill
1461 CE · Wales · Approximate location
Yorkist forces defeated Lancastrian resistance near Caernarfon during the campaign to establish Edward IV’s authority in Wales.
Landscape: Twthill is the rising ground beside Caernarfon. The historic name is more certain than any reconstructed battle line.
Location evidence: A parliamentary attainder names Twthill beside Caernarfon and dates the fighting. The surviving description does not fix a precise tactical footprint.
Hedgeley Moor
1464 CE · England · Approximate location
Montagu defeated Lancastrian forces in Northumberland. Sir Ralph Percy was killed.
Landscape: The traditional ground lies around Hedgeley Moor near Powburn. A later cross commemorates Percy.
Location evidence: Documentary evidence and local terrain support the general district; commemorative tradition does not by itself establish unit positions.
Hexham
1464 CE · England · Approximate location
Montagu defeated the remaining Lancastrian field army. Somerset was captured and executed.
Landscape: The battlefield is associated with the countryside south of Hexham and the Devils Water valley.
Location evidence: The landscape constrains possible positions, but the exact alignment of the armies is reconstructed rather than marked by this point.
Siege of Bamburgh
1464 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
Yorkist artillery helped force the surrender of Bamburgh during the reduction of northern Lancastrian strongholds.
Landscape: The castle rock, defences and surrounding approaches define the siege landscape.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Siege of Harlech
1468 CE · Wales · Located battlefield vicinity
Harlech surrendered in 1468, ending the remaining Lancastrian stronghold’s resistance.
Landscape: The castle and its former coastal access explain its defensive strength.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Edgcote
1469 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
Rebel forces defeated Pembroke’s army near Banbury. The result enabled Warwick’s faction to take control of Edward IV.
Landscape: The Cherwell valley near Edgcote and Danesmoor frames the battlefield. Marsh, river crossings and rising ground affect proposed deployments.
Location evidence: Historical place-names and landscape analysis locate the general area, while the exact position and orientation remain contested.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Burials and spurs reported at Chipping Warden
Nineteenth-century discoveries included human remains and spurs. The heritage record discusses a possible link to the rout, while warning that inadequate excavation records prevent firm association.
Antiquarian discovery; proposed battle link uncertain
Archaeological source
Losecoat Field
1470 CE · England · Approximate location
Edward IV defeated the rebels near Empingham, exposing the wider challenge to his rule.
Landscape: The Empingham and Tickencote district in Rutland frames the battlefield.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Nibley Green
1470 CE · England · Approximate location
Berkeley defeated Talbot in a private feud during the Wars of the Roses period. This was not a direct dynastic battle between royal claimants.
Landscape: The ground below North Nibley is the traditional setting.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Tewkesbury
1471 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
Edward IV defeated the Lancastrians. The death of Prince Edward helped end this phase of Lancastrian resistance.
Landscape: The ground south of the medieval town, its lanes and enclosures, and the routes towards the abbey and rivers frame the battle.
Location evidence: Documentary descriptions and surviving topography help locate the battlefield. Present boundaries and commemorative features are not automatic evidence for fifteenth-century positions.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Bearded axe-head near the proposed Lancastrian rout
An archaeological review records a medieval axe with possible combat adaptation near the battlefield’s eastern edge. Its type could also serve ordinary work; the proposed connection to the retreat is not certain.
Recovered medieval axe; battle use and association uncertain
Archaeological source
Barnet
1471 CE · England · Unconfirmed area of interest
Edward IV defeated Warwick in a confused battle fought in fog. Warwick was killed, and Edward continued towards the final confrontation at Tewkesbury.
Landscape: The elevated ground north of High Barnet, the old St Albans road and the Hadley Green district are central to competing reconstructions.
Location evidence: Contemporary descriptions establish a northern approach and hedge-side position. They do not settle the precise modern field; the eighteenth-century obelisk is a commemorative marker.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Six iron arrowheads traditionally attributed to Barnet
Given to the British Museum in 1851, these arrowheads were later loaned to Barnet. Their reported battlefield origin lacks a modern excavation record; the loan does not independently confirm that they were fired in 1471.
Traditional battlefield attribution; limited original provenance
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: British Museum collection, loaned to Barnet Museum
Barnet Museum documents the loan and display. Confirm whether the loan remains on display before visiting.
- Decorated medieval strap end from Wrotham Park
A strap end was recovered during the battlefield project. Its medieval date makes it relevant to the landscape study, but it does not prove that its wearer participated in the battle.
Survey-project find; battle association not established
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Barnet Museum
Public display is not confirmed. Check current access with the collection.
- Three small lead cannonballs reported from Kitts End
The local project partner reports three lead balls held at Barnet Museum. Their attribution to the fighting remains a research question; their existence does not settle the disputed battlefield location.
Reported ammunition finds; battle attribution unconfirmed
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Barnet Museum
Public display is not confirmed. Check current access with the collection.
- Edward IV groat recovered at Wrotham Park
The project partner records a groat of 1467–68 among the museum’s finds. It predates the 1471 battle, but a coin can remain in circulation and its loss cannot be assigned to the battle from its mint date alone.
Recorded coin find; precise date of loss unknown
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Barnet Museum
Public display is not confirmed. Check current access with the collection.
Bosworth
1485 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
Henry Tudor defeated Richard III. Archaeological work shifted understanding of the battlefield away from the older Ambion Hill interpretation. The point is a reference within the wider landscape.
Landscape: The battle is associated with the wider Fenn Lane landscape rather than simply the older visitor interpretation on Ambion Hill.
Location evidence: Battlefield archaeology, including shot distributions and landscape study, changed the accepted focus. The visitor centre and memorial should not be mistaken for a complete battle footprint.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Lead artillery shot and smaller projectiles
The battlefield survey recovered lead shot in several sizes. Their recorded distribution helped relocate the main fighting away from the older Ambion Hill focus.
Documented survey assemblage
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Leicestershire Museum Collections / Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre
The museum service displays a selection at Bosworth; other objects are stored and available by appointment. Check individual object availability.
- Silver-gilt boar badge
Found in 2009, this badge is associated with Richard III’s emblem and forms part of the battlefield collection. It does not independently establish the king’s exact place of death.
Documented find; personal ownership and exact tactical meaning are inferred
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Leicestershire Museum Collections / Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre
The museum service displays a selection at Bosworth; other objects are stored and available by appointment. Check individual object availability.
- Bosworth processional cross: disputed provenance
An antiquarian account places this bronze-gilt cross on Bosworth Field. The catalogue also records an alternative origin in a Catholic family collection at Husbands Bosworth. It must not be treated as a confirmed battlefield find.
Disputed provenance; traditional battle association
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Society of Antiquaries of London, Burlington House · Catalogue LDSAL446
Current display status not confirmed. Check with the collection before visiting.
- Silver-gilt bird livery badge
The survey collection includes a bird-shaped badge interpreted as an eagle or fettered falcon. Its suggested connection to Arthur Plantagenet remains uncertain; the object does not establish that he attended the battle.
Survey find; heraldic identification and wearer uncertain
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Leicestershire Museum Collections / Bosworth Battlefield Heritage Centre
A selection of the battlefield collection is displayed at Bosworth; other objects are stored. Confirm this badge’s availability.
Stoke Field
1487 CE · England · Approximate location
Henry VII defeated the rebel army supporting Lambert Simnel. Lincoln was killed in the last major battle usually included in the Wars of the Roses.
Landscape: The battlefield lies near East Stoke above the Trent valley, south-west of Newark.
Location evidence: The village, river escarpment and historical accounts locate the wider battlefield. The routes of the defeated army and precise fighting lines remain interpretations.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Human remains recovered during A46 works
A burial pit investigated in 1982 produced male remains with evidence of weapon trauma. The county heritage service links the burial to Stoke Field while noting incomplete recovery records and limits to wider conclusions.
Excavated human remains; early recording limitations
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: National Civil War Centre, Newark
The county heritage service reports some skulls displayed at Newark. Check current arrangements before visiting.
Sauchieburn
1488 CE · Scotland · Unconfirmed area of interest
The royal army was defeated and James III died during the events surrounding the battle.
Landscape: The district south of Stirling contains competing reconstructions of the fighting.
Location evidence: The modern location is disputed or unknown. This circle illustrates a proposed district or a broad research region, not an established battlefield.
Knockdoe
1504 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
Kildare’s coalition defeated Burke and his allies near Galway in a major contest between regional powers.
Landscape: The low hill of Knockdoe near Lackagh north-east of Galway is the traditional battlefield setting.
Location evidence: The hill and local historical study anchor the district. The point does not establish precise formations or casualty totals.
Flodden
1513 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
The Earl of Surrey defeated James IV’s invading Scottish army. James and many Scottish nobles were killed.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Composite artillery shot from the Flodden investigations
Iron-cored lead cannonballs recovered in 2001 and 2007 are discussed in the project report. Their locations favour a battle association, although similar ammunition was used in other sixteenth-century campaigns.
Recovered project finds; probable rather than exclusive battle attribution
Archaeological source
Knockavoe
1522 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
The O’Donnells routed the O’Neill coalition in a surprise attack.
Landscape: The Knockavoe district near Strabane provides the reference landscape.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Solway Moss
1542 CE · England · Approximate location
A Scottish invasion ended in defeat and widespread capture near the Solway.
Landscape: The low ground between the Esk, border crossings and mossland shaped the retreat.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Ancrum Moor
1545 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
The Scots defeated an English raiding army during the Rough Wooing.
Landscape: The moorland district around Lilliard’s Edge near Ancrum frames the conventional location.
Location evidence: Topographical and narrative evidence underpin the district identification. Later traditions about individual heroes should not be treated as contemporary archaeology.
Pinkie
1547 CE · Scotland · Located battlefield vicinity
An English army defeated the Scots east of Musselburgh during the Rough Wooing. Artillery, cavalry and naval support shaped the engagement.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Lead shot and equipment fittings from the Pinkie landscape
The Scottish inventory records lead balls, possible case shot, round shot, buckles, buttons and horse fittings from detecting. Some areas also contain later military activity, so each object needs independent dating and context.
Recorded assemblages; dating and battle attribution vary
Archaeological source
Langside
1568 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Moray defeated Mary’s supporters, ending her immediate attempt to recover power in Scotland.
Landscape: The slopes and former lanes at Langside are now largely within Glasgow’s suburbs.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Glenmalure
1580 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
An English expedition was defeated in the Wicklow mountains by forces using the difficult glen to their advantage.
Landscape: The steep Glenmalure valley and its approaches are the main geographical framework.
Location evidence: The glen is known, while later traditions and memorials should not be mistaken for an eyewitness deployment map.
Ford of the Biscuits
1594 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
The Irish defeated a column attempting to relieve Enniskillen.
Landscape: The Arney valley and approaches towards Enniskillen frame the proposed battlefield.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Clontibret
1595 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
O’Neill’s troops attacked and defeated the returning crown force during the Nine Years’ War.
Landscape: The Clontibret district and routes towards Newry form a dispersed engagement landscape.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Yellow Ford
1598 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
Irish forces defeated the English relief army advancing towards the Blackwater fort. Bagenal was killed.
Landscape: The route north from Armagh towards the Blackwater crossed broken and wet ground, with obstacles prepared along the march.
Location evidence: Accounts of ditches, separated columns and the relief route constrain the landscape. The fighting unfolded along a route, not solely at a single ford.
Curlew Pass
1599 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
The crown expedition was defeated while crossing the Curlew Mountains, and Clifford was killed.
Landscape: The pass north of Boyle and its approaches constrain the route of the fighting.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Kinsale
1601 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
An English victory over the Irish relief army helped decide the Nine Years War. The siege and relief battle occupied a wider landscape around Kinsale.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. The displayed radius is an editorial area of interest and does not establish an exact site.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Unfired and imperfect lead shot from the Lord Deputy’s siege camp
The Kinsale project recovered lead bullets interpreted as locally cast ammunition dropped in muddy camp conditions. Manufacturing defects and the absence of firing damage distinguish these from a shot-impact pattern.
Archaeological camp finds; interpreted as ammunition manufacture and loss
Archaeological source
Newburn Ford
1640 CE · England · Approximate location
The Scots forced a crossing of the Tyne, opening the way towards Newcastle during the Second Bishops’ War.
Landscape: The Tyne crossing at Newburn and high ground overlooking the southern defences are central to reconstruction.
Location evidence: The river and documentary evidence constrain the action, though later industry and river engineering changed the approaches.
Edgehill
1642 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
The first major pitched battle of the English Civil War ended without a decisive strategic result. The marker indicates the battlefield landscape.
Landscape: The Edgehill escarpment, Kineton and the plain below define the landscape. The main engagement was on the plain after the Royalists descended.
Location evidence: Accounts, historic maps and archaeological research support reconstruction of the broad position. The ridge is a viewing landmark, not the whole battlefield.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Mapped battlefield artefact scatter from the 2004–2006 survey
The Battlefields Trust publishes a distribution map of recovered objects across the central battlefield. The recorded scatter supports interpretation of deployment and fighting; isolated objects without find positions cannot provide the same evidence.
Systematic survey evidence; deployment remains an interpretation
Archaeological source
Powick Bridge
1642 CE · England · Approximate location
Royalist cavalry defeated Parliamentarian horse near Worcester in an early encounter of the war.
Landscape: The bridge across the River Teme and the approaches south-west of Worcester anchor the action.
Location evidence: The bridge is identifiable, while the cavalry movements and pursuit extended over a wider area.
Chalgrove
1643 CE · England · Approximate location
Rupert defeated pursuing Parliamentarian cavalry after a raid. Hampden was wounded and died several days later.
Landscape: The fields north of Chalgrove and historic enclosures are central to reconstruction.
Location evidence: The registered battlefield and documentary study identify the district; this point is not Hampden’s verified wounding location.
Lansdown
1643 CE · England · Approximate location
Royalist troops took Waller’s position after hard fighting on the heights north of Bath. Grenville was killed.
Landscape: The escarpment of Lansdown Hill and its summit approaches explain the tactical difficulty.
Location evidence: The ridge and surviving historic features constrain the battlefield; later boundaries do not reproduce every seventeenth-century enclosure.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Minion cannon shot reported in 2002
The published artillery study records a ball weighing three pounds seven ounces found near Lansdown. It is interpreted as ammunition for a minion cannon; present custody and exact recovery context are not specified.
Published artillery-find report
Archaeological source
Roundway Down
1643 CE · England · Approximate location
Royalist cavalry defeated Waller’s army above Devizes, transforming the campaign in the west.
Landscape: The chalk downland north of Devizes includes steep slopes that affected the rout.
Location evidence: The downland setting is secure, while the positions and paths of separate cavalry charges are reconstructed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Small-arms projectile scatter from the 2019 survey report
The report identifies lead ammunition, including fired examples, across a surveyed corridor. A concentration near the track up Roundway Hill is interpreted as possible evidence for the 1643 fighting.
Systematic survey finds; battle association interpreted
Archaeological source - Iron cannonball beside the Roundway Hill track
The survey report records an iron cannonball approximately three inches across, recovered west of the track. It is interpreted as battle material; the find does not identify the gun that fired it.
Recorded survey find attributed to the battle
Archaeological source
First Newbury
1643 CE · England · Approximate location
Essex fought through the Royalist attempt to block his return towards London. Neither side destroyed the other’s army.
Landscape: Wash Common and the approaches south of Newbury formed a landscape of open ground and enclosures.
Location evidence: Historic England’s report and landscape study identify the general ground, much altered by development.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket balls traditionally attributed to Newbury
Royal Museums Greenwich holds three balls said to have come from the Newbury battlefield. Its catalogue does not assign them to the 1643 or 1644 battle. This is the same assemblage linked under both entries, not two separate discoveries.
Traditional museum attribution; exact battle and recovery context unconfirmed
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: National Maritime Museum, Royal Museums Greenwich · Catalogue KTP1075
The online catalogue records these objects as not on display. Contact the museum about research access.
Adwalton Moor
1643 CE · England · Approximate location
The Royalists defeated the Fairfaxes near Bradford, strengthening Newcastle’s control in Yorkshire.
Landscape: The Adwalton and Drighlington district included open moor and enclosed ground that affected the fighting.
Location evidence: The registered landscape and historical accounts locate the broad district. Modern settlement has changed much of the ground.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Lead bullets from development east of Moorside Road
The registered battlefield description records a small number of lead bullets from this area. They may belong to the battle, but the entry notes that detailed analysis had not been undertaken.
Recorded stray finds; battle date unconfirmed
Archaeological source - Cannonballs, grenade and chain shot traditionally attributed to the battle
Historic England records these objects in the Bolling Hall collection while warning that their provenance is unconfirmed. They illustrate a collection tradition, not a secure excavated ammunition assemblage.
Museum-held objects; traditional attribution only
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Bolling Hall Museum, Bradford
The registered battlefield description identifies the collection. Confirm current display and access with the museum.
Braddock Down
1643 CE · England · Approximate location
Hopton defeated Ruthven, strengthening the Royalist position in Cornwall.
Landscape: The downland near Bradoc east of Lostwithiel provides the battlefield setting.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Stratton
1643 CE · England · Approximate location
Royalist troops defeated the Parliamentarian army on the heights near Stratton.
Landscape: The steep ground at Stamford Hill near Bude explains the difficulty of the Royalist attack.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Hopton Heath
1643 CE · England · Approximate location
The Royalists drove back their opponents, but Northampton was killed in the fighting.
Landscape: The ground north-east of Stafford forms the reference landscape.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Heavy cannon shot recovered in 1940
The study records a twenty-nine-pound ball from Hopton Heath, consistent with accounts of heavy artillery at the battle. The object does not by itself identify a particular gun or firing position.
Published artillery-find report; weapon identification interpretive
Archaeological source
Winceby
1643 CE · England · Approximate location
The Parliamentarians defeated Royalist cavalry in Lincolnshire.
Landscape: The lanes and rolling ground near Winceby, east of Horncastle, frame the encounter.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Breastplate and backplate from Scrafield
The paired armour was found during ploughing near a proposed Royalist retreat route. No human bones accompanied it. The suggestion that a fleeing soldier discarded it is plausible but unproven.
Recorded armour find; proposed link to the retreat
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Lincoln Museum, City and County collection · Catalogue LM 178.78
The heritage record identifies the museum collection reference. Confirm current custody and access with Lincoln Museum.
Marston Moor
1644 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
Parliamentarian and Covenanter armies defeated Prince Rupert’s Royalists, transforming the war in northern England.
Landscape: Long Marston, Tockwith, open arable slopes and the former moorland provide the main framework. Drainage and enclosure have changed the terrain.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Lead shot recovered at Gill House Farm in 2005
A controlled survey before barn construction recorded eighty-eight objects, including twenty-six lead shot. The published study treats the ammunition as evidence that fighting extended into the investigated parcel.
Recorded development-led survey assemblage
Archaeological source - Mapped projectiles from the 1973–1979 investigations
The early systematic battlefield work recovered and mapped hundreds of projectiles across a broad area. This is a different survey programme from Gill House Farm; its value lies in recorded distributions, not just the number of objects.
Published account of systematic survey evidence
Archaeological source
Nantwich
1644 CE · England · Approximate location
Fairfax defeated the Royalists and relieved Nantwich, damaging their position in Cheshire.
Landscape: The fields around Acton west of Nantwich and the River Weaver are principal landmarks.
Location evidence: The recorded approach routes and the landscape constrain the battle area. Flooding and later alteration complicate precise reconstruction.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Shot-impact scars on Acton church
The church masonry retains damage interpreted as evidence of the 1644 fighting. This is in-situ structural evidence rather than a portable museum object; the Trust notes that a detailed study of the impacts remains desirable.
Surviving structural evidence associated with the battle
Archaeological source
Cheriton
1644 CE · England · Approximate location
Waller defeated the Royalist army in Hampshire, helping secure Parliament’s position in southern England.
Landscape: Cheriton Wood, lanes and enclosed fields shaped a battle fought across broken ground.
Location evidence: Documentary descriptions and historic landscape analysis identify the district; surviving modern hedges are not automatically the wartime boundaries.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Cannonballs reported from village gardens
Alresford Museum’s local history account records cannonballs found in Cheriton gardens. These are historical reports of stray finds; exact recovery positions and present holding collections are not specified.
Museum-published historical find reports; limited provenance
Archaeological source - Small-find assemblage analysed in the Cheriton studies
Published research examines the collected battlefield assemblage to reassess where fighting occurred. Recovery methods and spatial recording require scrutiny; this material is distinct from the historical garden cannonballs already listed.
Published artefact analysis; interpretation limited by collection history
Archaeological source
Lostwithiel
1644 CE · England · Approximate location
Essex’s campaign ended with the surrender of much of his infantry after cavalry escaped and senior commanders departed.
Landscape: The Fowey valley, Lostwithiel and the approaches towards Fowey and the sea form a dispersed campaign landscape.
Location evidence: The marker is a regional reference. The fighting, retreat and surrender occurred at different places and must not be collapsed into one battlefield point.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket shot and small Civil War finds
Historic England records extensive metal-detecting evidence south of Lostwithiel. Artefact concentrations help assess the dispersed campaign landscape.
Recorded archaeological survey evidence
Archaeological source - Battlefield finds on the Castle Dore ridge
The registered battlefield entry identifies a concentration of seventeenth-century finds. The assemblage supports the location of fighting in the later stages of the campaign.
Documented artefact concentration
Archaeological source
Second Newbury
1644 CE · England · Approximate location
The combined Parliamentarian armies failed to destroy the king’s force, despite their numerical advantage.
Landscape: Speen, Shaw House and Donnington Castle frame separate sectors north of Newbury.
Location evidence: The battle was spread across several approaches; one marker cannot represent its whole extent.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket balls traditionally attributed to Newbury
Royal Museums Greenwich holds three balls said to have come from the Newbury battlefield. Its catalogue does not assign them to the 1643 or 1644 battle. This is the same assemblage linked under both entries, not two separate discoveries.
Traditional museum attribution; exact battle and recovery context unconfirmed
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: National Maritime Museum, Royal Museums Greenwich · Catalogue KTP1075
The online catalogue records these objects as not on display. Contact the museum about research access.
- Musket and pistol balls from Donnington Grove, 1992
A detecting group recovered these ammunition types in the area later developed as a golf course. This assemblage is distinct from the traditionally attributed Newbury balls held at Greenwich; current custody is not specified.
Recorded detecting finds; original collection details limited
Archaeological source - Human remains historically reported around Shaw House
Several nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century discoveries were interpreted as possible casualties, including a burial pit found during greenhouse works. These are historical reports without a modern scientific demonstration that all the remains belong to the 1644 battle.
Reported human remains; battle attribution unconfirmed
Archaeological source
Montgomery
1644 CE · Wales · Approximate location
Parliamentarian forces defeated the Royalists near Montgomery Castle, securing an important success in Wales.
Landscape: The plain north of the town, below the castle and towards Hen Domen, is the principal battlefield setting.
Location evidence: Welsh historic-environment records and landscape research identify a broad area; the castle is a reference point, not the centre of every phase.
Cropredy Bridge
1644 CE · England · Approximate location
Royalist troops repulsed Waller’s forces after fighting around crossings of the Cherwell.
Landscape: Cropredy, nearby river crossings and the roads between them formed a dispersed battlefield.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Naseby
1645 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
The New Model Army defeated Charles I’s principal field army. The result badly damaged the Royalist war effort.
Landscape: The ridges north of Naseby, Broad Moor and the ground between Dust Hill and the Parliamentarian position frame the fighting.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Recorded musket-shot distributions
The Naseby Battlefield Project uses mapped projectile finds to interpret the fighting ground. The pattern of recorded finds is more informative than an isolated ball without provenance.
Mapped battlefield evidence
Archaeological source - Cannonball held by the National Army Museum
The museum catalogue attributes a cannonball to Naseby. A collection attribution is distinct from a modern excavation record with a precise find location.
Museum-catalogued battlefield association
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: National Army Museum, London · Catalogue 1967-07-5-1
The catalogue lists the Army At Home gallery. Confirm current display arrangements before visiting.
- Love token shown among the Naseby battlefield finds
Daventry Museum’s 2020 exhibition account lists a love token among finds from the battlefield. Objects were lent by individuals and project supporters; the exhibition does not establish permanent museum ownership or identify the original owner.
Museum exhibition attribution; detailed recovery context not supplied
Archaeological source - Die shown among the Naseby battlefield finds
The same past exhibition included a die described as a battlefield find. It offers evidence of personal activity, but its exact loss date and association with a particular soldier are unproven.
Museum exhibition attribution; detailed recovery context not supplied
Archaeological source - Button bearing a royal portrait
A button with a king’s head was listed among the battlefield objects in the exhibition. An emblem does not by itself establish which army its owner served, and the published account does not give a precise findspot.
Museum exhibition attribution; owner and recovery context unknown
Archaeological source - Armour traditionally known as the Naseby Battlefield Relics
Harborough Museum cares for armour donated by Guy Paget in the 1930s. The museum explicitly states that the objects’ origin in the battle is unknown; they are period material with a traditional label, not verified excavated battle finds.
Museum-held period armour; battle provenance unconfirmed
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Harborough Museum
The museum describes three armour exhibits. Confirm current display arrangements before visiting.
- Gold Fairfax medalet reported from the battlefield
The county record describes a gold medalet reportedly found in the nineteenth century, bearing Fairfax’s portrait and the date 1645. It may commemorate events rather than have been lost during combat; attribution to Thomas Simon is unproven.
Historical find report; manufacture and combat association uncertain
Archaeological source
Inverlochy
1645 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Montrose’s army defeated the Covenanters near Inverlochy after a winter march through difficult country.
Landscape: Old Inverlochy Castle and the ground by Loch Linnhe and the River Lochy provide the principal landmarks.
Location evidence: The accepted landscape is distinct from the 1431 battle fought in the same district; exact formations remain reconstructed.
Auldearn
1645 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Montrose defeated Hurry’s Covenanter army around Auldearn.
Landscape: Dooket Hill, the village and surrounding broken ground shape modern interpretations.
Location evidence: The inventory and archaeological work identify a battlefield landscape; interpretations of Montrose’s tactics are disputed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Two impacted musket balls and lead scrap
A Highland historic-environment survey record reports these objects but explicitly states that they do not provide definitive evidence for the battle. They are included as possible associations, not confirmed proof of a fighting line.
Possible battle association; not definitive
Archaeological source
Alford
1645 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Montrose defeated the Covenanters near Alford. Lord Gordon was killed on the Royalist side.
Landscape: The River Don crossing and rising ground around Alford constrain proposed deployments.
Location evidence: The Scottish inventory and historical accounts identify the broader ground rather than a single confirmed fighting line.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Broadsword reported with human remains during peat cutting
The county heritage record describes an eighteenth-century discovery of a skeleton and a seventeenth-century broadsword. The battle connection is historical interpretation; exact recovery context and present custody are not confirmed.
Antiquarian report; battle attribution unverified
Archaeological source
Kilsyth
1645 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Montrose defeated a Covenanter army near Kilsyth, briefly opening the prospect of wider Royalist control.
Landscape: The hills and basin east of Kilsyth shaped manoeuvre on ground since altered by reservoirs and development.
Location evidence: The inventory records a battlefield landscape. Changes to the ground mean a modern aerial view is not a literal map of 1645.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket balls reported at Bullet Knowes
An eighteenth-century account describes repeated bullet discoveries at Bullet Knowes. These reports inform research into the battle’s location but lack modern recording, retained assemblage analysis and exact find positions.
Antiquarian ammunition reports; distribution not modernly verified
Archaeological source - Cannonball reportedly deposited at Colzium Museum
The Scottish inventory records a small rusted cannonball found in the house grounds and given to the museum, while explicitly cautioning that its battle connection is uncertain.
Recorded museum deposit; unconfirmed battle association
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Colzium House Museum
The inventory records the historical deposit. Current custody and display of this particular ball are unverified.
Philiphaugh
1645 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Leslie defeated Montrose near Selkirk. Killing after the fighting forms a significant part of the battle’s history.
Landscape: The haughs beside the Ettrick Water west of Selkirk define the district.
Location evidence: Historical accounts, landscape study and archaeological work underpin identification; the camp and battle extents remain subjects of analysis.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Lead bullets recovered from the haugh and higher ground
The Scottish inventory records detecting finds across parts of the landscape. It also warns that there are no unequivocal archaeological remains from the battle. Individual bullets therefore require dating and recovery-context assessment.
Recorded detecting finds; individual battle associations unconfirmed
Archaeological source - Silver plate reported near Harehead Wood
A nineteenth-century account describes silver plate recovered near Harehead Wood. Later writers associated it with the battle, but neither the find’s exact context nor the original owner is established.
Antiquarian discovery report; proposed battle association
Archaeological source - Silver coins historically reported around the battlefield
The inventory records coins from the wider battlefield area and a separate group from Tinnis reportedly given to Walter Scott. Their circulation dates and locations are insufficient to prove loss during the 1645 action.
Historical coin reports; not a securely dated battle deposit
Archaeological source
Langport
1645 CE · England · Approximate location
The New Model Army broke Goring’s position east of Langport and pursued the Royalists towards Bridgwater.
Landscape: Wet ground and the narrow crossing of the Wagg Rhyne channel restricted the mounted attack east of the town.
Location evidence: Contemporary accounts describe a confined passage, hedged musketeers and hills. These features support the accepted landscape but not every modern ditch alignment.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Lead ammunition from the 2021 and 2023 surveys
The Battlefields Trust recovered 35 pieces of lead shot during two surveys. Their distribution supports the registered battlefield location; some musket-sized shot is consistent with ammunition supplied to the New Model Army.
Systematically recorded survey ammunition
Archaeological source
Rowton Heath
1645 CE · England · Approximate location
Parliamentarian forces defeated the Royalist attempt to relieve pressure on Chester.
Landscape: The countryside east of Chester towards Rowton and the city approaches framed successive actions.
Location evidence: The fighting moved across a wider area than the traditional memorial point; routes and phases should be read together.
Sieges of Basing House
1645 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
Basing House’s Royalist garrison resisted repeated attacks before Parliamentarian forces stormed and destroyed the house in October 1645.
Landscape: Surviving foundations, defensive works and the Great Barn show different parts of the contested complex.
Location evidence: The point marks the house ruins. Individual finds and impact scars cannot all be assigned to the final assault.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Fork from a seventeenth-century musket rest
A project report records this component recovered during path preparations in September 2009. It supports a military interpretation, but cannot be assigned to a particular assault.
Recorded site discovery; precise siege phase unknown
Archaeological source - Musket ball from the 2013 excavations
The university excavation blog records one musket ball from a nearby investigated area. It distinguishes Civil War evidence from the much earlier objects also found on the site.
Excavation-project report; siege phase unresolved
Archaeological source - Artillery shot from Basing House excavations
The published artillery study identifies Basing House among sites where archaeological excavation recovered cannon shot. The entry does not assign a surviving ball to a named gun.
Published excavation-find summary
Archaeological source - Artillery damage on the Great Barn
The site custodian identifies visible bombardment damage on the surviving barn. This is in-situ evidence, not a portable museum object, and belongs to the sequence of Civil War attacks.
Standing structural evidence
Archaeological source
The entry is centred on the final fall in 1645 and covers the earlier fighting of 1643–44.
Sieges of Pontefract Castle
1645 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
Pontefract Castle endured repeated Civil War sieges. Recovered ammunition and a nearby concealed hoard illuminate bombardment and wartime insecurity.
Landscape: The surviving castle works overlook Pontefract; the Ackworth hoard was found away from the castle itself.
Location evidence: The marker is the castle reference point. Finds from Ackworth belong to the wider conflict landscape, not this exact coordinate.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Seven cannonballs removed from the outer wall in 2016
Conservation exposed embedded projectiles deep in the wall. The museum relates them to Civil War bombardment; this entry does not resolve calendar-year differences in older siege accounts.
In-situ bombardment finds recovered during conservation
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Wakefield Museums and Castles, Pontefract Castle Visitor Centre
The custodian states that the recovered balls can be seen in the Visitor Centre. Confirm current access.
- Ackworth hoard of coins and a gold ring
Found in a garden in 2011, the hoard contained 591 coins and a ring in a ceramic pot. The museum associates concealment with Civil War insecurity around the Pontefract sieges, not a proven loss by a combatant.
Excavated hoard; wartime concealment interpreted
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Pontefract Museum
The museum states that part of the hoard is on display.
The timeline uses 1645 for the earlier sieges; the wider series continued into 1648–49. Dates in older accounts may use different year conventions.
Siege of Sandal Castle
1645 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
A Royalist garrison briefly refortified Sandal in 1645 before surrendering on 1 October. Parliament ordered its defences dismantled the following year.
Landscape: The ruined towers, earthworks and exposed masonry provide a reference for the short-lived garrison.
Location evidence: The castle is securely identified; the proposed projectile damage is an interpretation of surviving stonework.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Bullets and cannonballs in the early Wakefield collection
The museum’s collection history records ammunition recovered at Sandal Castle among its earliest exhibits. The account does not provide modern find coordinates or a date for every object.
Museum-recorded castle finds; individual contexts limited
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Wakefield Museums and Castles
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Possible cannonball impact on a tower stone
The custodian identifies a damaged stone as potentially caused by Civil War artillery. Its appearance is not sufficient to identify the projectile or firing position.
In-situ damage; projectile attribution possible
Archaeological source
This is the Civil War siege of 1645, distinct from Wakefield in 1460.
Stow-on-the-Wold
1646 CE · England · Approximate location
Astley’s remaining Royalist field force was defeated and pursued into Stow.
Landscape: The approaches north of Stow and the town itself formed successive parts of the engagement.
Location evidence: Accounts identify the district and pursuit, while the starting position on the northern approaches remains reconstructed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket, carbine and pistol ammunition from the 2018 survey
The Trust reports a fighting concentration identified after an initially negative survey. Finds included modified shot and a double-shotted round. This recorded assemblage is distinct from untested traditions about the location.
Systematic survey evidence for a fighting area
Archaeological source
Benburb
1646 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
O’Neill’s Confederate Ulster army defeated Monro’s Scottish Covenanter force near Benburb.
Landscape: The Blackwater valley near Benburb and the ground towards Battleford frame interpretations of the action.
Location evidence: The district is historically identified, but precise deployments and the extent of the rout require a wider reading than one point.
Siege of Goodrich Castle
1646 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
Parliamentarian forces under John Birch captured Henry Lingen’s Royalist garrison after a destructive siege in 1646.
Landscape: The castle ruins, courtyard, well and surrounding defences preserve a compact siege landscape.
Location evidence: The point identifies the standing castle, not a reconstruction of every battery and trench.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Iron caltrop
A defensive spike, catalogued as seventeenth-century military equipment.
Excavated castle collection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Spiked incendiary cannonball
Iron ammunition intended to lodge in timber and start fires.
Excavated castle collection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Lead musket balls from across the castle
Recorded ammunition includes examples retaining marks from bullet casting.
Excavated castle collection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Flintlock pistol barrel
A seventeenth-century firearm component in the excavated collection.
Excavated castle collection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Stoneware tankard from the moat
A drinking vessel: domestic occupation evidence, not a weapon.
Excavated castle collection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Gilded spur from the barbican
Decorated equestrian equipment recovered in made-up ground; context is disturbed.
Excavated castle collection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Baker’s peel from the well
An iron baking tool preserved with household material in the well.
Excavated castle collection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Copper-alloy harness mount
An equestrian fitting; its original horse and rider are unknown.
Excavated castle collection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Wooden laundry paddle from the well
Waterlogging preserved this household implement, unrelated to a specific combatant.
Excavated castle collection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Decorative plaster from the north-west tower
Earlier interior decoration recovered from the damaged tower’s basement.
Excavated castle collection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Claw hammer from the well
A household or maintenance tool recovered from the well deposits.
Excavated castle collection
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Mortar-shell fragments from the castle well
Clearance of the well revealed shell fragments beneath collapse debris. English Heritage interprets the well-head damage as a probable mortar hit during the siege.
Excavated bombardment evidence; firing weapon interpreted
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: English Heritage
The access guide lists a surviving mortar shell at the visitor centre. That display item is not asserted to be these exact fragments.
The timeline uses the year of the 1646 siege. Domestic finds may predate the bombardment.
Siege of Corfe Castle
1646 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
Corfe Castle fell to Parliamentarian forces in 1646 after repeated Royalist resistance and was subsequently demolished.
Landscape: The hilltop ruins retain gateways, standing fragments and deposits beneath collapse rubble.
Location evidence: The marker identifies the castle. The excavated sallyport and individual finds have their own contexts within the site.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Three-handled ceramic firepot
Excavated in a gatehouse chamber in 1986, this vessel was later interpreted as a seventeenth-century smoke-producing weapon. Comparison with Dutch examples informs the identification; their analysed contents are not asserted to be residues from this vessel.
Excavated object; function identified through parallels
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: National Trust, Corfe Castle · Catalogue NT 420358
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Seventeenth-century musket ball in the castle record
The National Trust heritage record lists a musket ball among the site’s finds. Its broad date fits the Civil War, but the summary does not allocate it to a particular siege phase.
Recorded site find; precise loss episode unknown
Archaeological source - Sallyport revealed by excavation in 2024
Excavation confirmed a buried gateway into the inner ward. It has been proposed as the access associated with the castle’s betrayal, but the excavated structure does not independently prove that account.
Excavated structure; association with the entry of attackers interpreted
Archaeological source
The entry centres on the fall in 1646. Objects may relate to earlier siege phases or occupation.
Sieges of Newark
1646 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
Newark resisted repeated Parliamentarian attacks before surrendering at the end of its final siege in 1646.
Landscape: Castle masonry, surviving fortifications and the townscape preserve different parts of the siege landscape.
Location evidence: The castle point is a reference for a siege extending across the town and outlying works.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket-impact scars at Newark Castle
The museum’s siege tour identifies surviving damage on the castle walls. It is structural conflict evidence across a sequence of sieges, rather than a measured record of one firing episode.
In-situ structural evidence; individual siege phase unresolved
Archaeological source
The timeline uses the final siege year, 1646; surviving damage may derive from earlier attacks in the 1640s.
Dungan’s Hill
1647 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
Jones defeated Preston’s Confederate army in County Meath, inflicting a major reverse on its Leinster forces.
Landscape: The district around Summerhill in County Meath is the traditional battlefield setting.
Location evidence: The marker shows the general district. Field boundaries and phases of the pursuit should not be inferred without further landscape research.
Knocknanuss
1647 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
Inchiquin’s Parliamentarian army defeated Taaffe’s Confederate force in Munster. Alasdair Mac Colla was killed.
Landscape: Knocknanuss townland lies east of Kanturk, between Kanturk and Mallow. The local hill, the Ballyheen approach and the slope towards Subulter are landmarks in the nineteenth-century topographical account.
Location evidence: The circle is centred on the local Knocknanuss district described in the topographical account, not on widely repeated coordinates elsewhere in Ireland. The later account helps locate the landscape but is not an eyewitness survey or proof of a precise battle perimeter.
Find Knocknanuss coverage on SevenSwords
Cork Historical and Archaeological Society: topographical account
St Fagans
1648 CE · Wales · Approximate location
Parliamentarian troops defeated a larger Royalist force west of Cardiff during the Second Civil War.
Landscape: The district west of Cardiff around St Fagans contains the traditional battlefield landscape.
Location evidence: Accounts locate the district, but proposed deployments depend on interpretation of a landscape changed by later settlement and land use.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Surveyed lead shot with a casting cavity
The museum catalogues a lead ball recovered in the 2012 battlefield survey. Its cavity comes from manufacture; the catalogue treats its association with the 1648 battle as possible.
Museum-catalogued survey find; possible battle association
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Amgueddfa Cymru – Museum Wales · Catalogue 2018.19H/[z290]
Recorded as in store, rather than on public display.
- Fragment of a large pewter spoon bowl
This spoon fragment was recovered during the 2012 survey. The museum dates it broadly and suggests a possible battle connection. It may represent personal equipment, but its owner is unknown.
Museum-catalogued survey find; possible battle association
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Amgueddfa Cymru – Museum Wales · Catalogue 2018.19H/[z334]
Recorded as in store, rather than on public display.
- Folded and clipped lead from the extended battlefield survey
The 2013 survey record describes folded and clipped lead among the finds interpreted as ammunition-making material. Museum Wales holds the survey assemblage; the lead pieces do not identify a particular firing position.
Survey material interpreted in a battle context
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Amgueddfa Cymru – Museum Wales · Catalogue 2018.19H
The survey assemblage is catalogued as in store. Individual lead-piece display is not confirmed.
Preston
1648 CE · England · Approximate location
Cromwell defeated the Scottish Engager invasion and its allies in fighting that continued south from Preston.
Landscape: Preston, Ribble crossings and the road towards Wigan and Warrington formed a multi-day operational landscape.
Location evidence: The marker identifies the opening district near Preston. It is not a claim that the whole campaign was fought within the circle.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Lead ammunition reported near Cromwell’s Mound
Historic England records musket balls and material described as sling shot between the mound and Broughton Tower. These finds have supported a traditional battle interpretation, but the mound may originally have served water management.
Reported ammunition; military interpretation of the earthwork uncertain
Archaeological source
Dunbar
1650 CE · Scotland · Located battlefield vicinity
Cromwell’s army defeated the Scottish Covenanters. The battlefield lies around the Brox Burn south-east of Dunbar.
Landscape: Doon Hill, Broxmouth and the Brox Burn frame the 1650 action.
Location evidence: Participant correspondence and the surviving terrain underpin the accepted landscape. The 1650 action must not be confused with the battle of 1296.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Burials of Scottish prisoners at Palace Green, Durham
Archaeological and scientific study links these burials to prisoners taken after Dunbar, rather than deaths on the battlefield itself. The remains were reburied in 2018 and are not museum exhibits.
Excavated aftermath evidence; human remains reburied
Archaeological source
Worcester
1651 CE · England · Approximate location
Parliamentarian armies defeated Charles II’s forces. Fighting spread across river crossings, approaches and the city.
Landscape: The Severn, Teme and their crossings, the southern approaches and the city itself formed a dispersed battlefield.
Location evidence: Accounts and town and landscape evidence support the sequence of attacks. No single point represents all the bridge fighting, field action and final retreat.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Lead shot from the buried Powick Hams battlefield surface
Excavation recovered musket, pistol, carbine and buckshot from alluvial deposits linked to the 1651 action. Some pieces had been fired; others may have been dropped. The mapped positions help explain activity near former boundaries.
Documented find; association interpreted from archaeological context
Archaeological source - Powder-charge caps from Powick Hams
The excavation report illustrates powder-charge caps among the battlefield finds. These small ammunition-container components complement the shot evidence but do not identify a particular soldier or regiment.
Documented find; association interpreted from archaeological context
Archaeological source - Strap ornaments from Powick Hams
Strap ornaments are illustrated among objects recovered during investigation of the buried battlefield. They provide equipment evidence alongside the ammunition, without establishing their original wearer.
Documented find; association interpreted from archaeological context
Archaeological source - Buckle from the Powick Hams investigation
The report illustrates a recovered buckle with the other small finds. Its significance depends on the excavation context; the object alone cannot locate a specific cavalry charge.
Documented find; association interpreted from archaeological context
Archaeological source - Priming-flask nozzle from the infantry fighting area
A nozzle was recovered near a former boundary east of the old Powick lane. It adds a firearm accessory to the ammunition evidence already listed; no individual owner is identified.
Excavated equipment component
Archaeological source - Pewter plate fragments from the boundary concentration
The excavation account lists pewter plate with objects near the musket-shot concentration. Domestic equipment may accompany troops, but the material does not identify a particular unit.
Excavated domestic-equipment material in a battle-related concentration
Archaeological source - Spur from the area near Powick church
A spur occurs in the mixed assemblage near the church alongside cavalry-calibre shot. The association helps interpret horsemen’s activity, while the individual rider remains unknown.
Excavated equestrian equipment; contextual cavalry interpretation
Archaeological source - Lead token west of the old Powick lane
A token was recovered with low-density shot and other objects west of the lane. It is evidence from the investigated landscape, without a precise manufacturing date or proof of a soldier’s ownership.
Excavated small find; individual battle association uncertain
Archaeological source
Rullion Green
1666 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
The government defeated the army of the Pentland Rising.
Landscape: The eastern slopes of the Pentland Hills near Penicuik are the reference landscape.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Bothwell Bridge
1679 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Government troops defeated the Covenanters at the Clyde crossing, ending their immediate field campaign.
Landscape: The bridge and its approaches at the Clyde define the main landscape.
Location evidence: The crossing is secure as a reference, while later changes to bridge and river approaches complicate reconstruction.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Lead-shot scatter from the northern approach to Bothwell Bridge
An AOC survey recorded a shot distribution interpreted as a Government firing line during the opening action. The report relates the pattern to the battle; it does not assign each projectile to a named regiment.
Archaeological survey; firing-line interpretation
Archaeological source - Decorated copper-alloy dirk pommel
A decorated pommel was recovered during the same archaeological assessment. It is an equipment find associated with investigation of the battle landscape, but its wearer and exact moment of loss remain unknown.
Recorded find; battle association interpreted from context
Archaeological source - Scrap lead from the archaeological assessment
The assessment recovered scrap lead alongside shot and the dirk component. Its context is consistent with military activity, although scrap alone cannot establish whether ammunition was made there during the battle.
Recovered material; function and precise date uncertain
Archaeological source
Drumclog
1679 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Covenanters defeated Claverhouse’s troops near Drumclog after an armed conventicle.
Landscape: The open countryside west of Strathaven included wet ground and a watercourse affecting the engagement.
Location evidence: The accepted district and historic descriptions guide reconstruction. Later memorials are not complete tactical evidence.
Glasgow (1679)
1679 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
A Covenanter attack on Glasgow was repulsed shortly after Drumclog.
Landscape: The old city around Glasgow Cross and adjoining streets is the reference area.
Location evidence: The official Bothwell Bridge account places the unsuccessful Glasgow attack in the same campaign. This is an urban encounter, not another location for Drumclog.
Airds Moss
1680 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Government troops defeated a small Covenanter force, and Richard Cameron was killed.
Landscape: The mossland east of Cumnock is the traditional district; later memorials do not define a complete engagement perimeter.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Sedgemoor
1685 CE · England · Located battlefield vicinity
James II’s troops defeated Monmouth’s rebels near Westonzoyland. Ditches and night movement shaped the battle.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Silver coins from a reported battlefield hoard
The heritage record describes six silver coins retained at Taunton Museum from a larger hoard reportedly found around 1820. The find history is antiquarian and does not establish who buried the money. Current custody and display have not been independently confirmed.
Historical hoard report; connection to individual combatants unproven
Archaeological source - Battlefield artefacts reported at Blake Museum
The Battlefields Trust records artefacts from the battlefield at Blake Museum, alongside privately retained shot and a button. This entry refers to the museum assemblage; its precise contents and present display require confirmation.
Published collection attribution; individual recovery contexts vary
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: Blake Museum, Bridgwater
The museum has a Battle Room. Confirm which original battlefield finds are currently displayed.
Norton St Philip
1685 CE · England · Approximate location
Monmouth’s men repulsed a royal advance before the later defeat at Sedgemoor.
Landscape: The village and its approaches formed an action in enclosed and built-up ground.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Reading (1688)
1688 CE · England · Approximate location
A brief clash ended with the royal garrison driven from Reading during the Glorious Revolution.
Landscape: The town’s streets and bridge approaches form the historical setting.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Killiecrankie
1689 CE · Scotland · Located battlefield vicinity
Jacobite Highlanders defeated government troops, but their commander John Graham of Claverhouse was killed.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket and pistol balls
A GUARD Archaeology survey recovered shot, including examples showing signs of impact or use. Their distribution contributes evidence for the fighting rather than merely commemorating it.
Documented archaeological survey
Archaeological source - Clothing and horse fittings
Transport Scotland reports buckles, buttons, horseshoes, a harness boss and part of a sword-belt support among the recovered artefacts. These categories do not identify individual casualties by themselves.
Documented finds from the A9 assessment surveys
Archaeological source
Dunkeld
1689 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
The Cameronians held Dunkeld against the Jacobites, despite Cleland’s death.
Landscape: The cathedral precinct, town streets and buildings made this a predominantly urban battle.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket balls reported from Dunkeld gardens
National Trust for Scotland archaeologists describe garden finds brought to them over the years. These reports are relevant to the urban battle but are not a single excavated assemblage with a mapped firing line.
Reported stray finds; individual recovery contexts vary
Archaeological source
Boyne
1690 CE · Ireland · Located battlefield vicinity
William III defeated James II around the Boyne crossings at Oldbridge. The war continued after this battle.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket ball recovered during the 2008 test-pit programme
Twenty test pits were used to evaluate earlier detecting results. One musket ball was recovered and considered potentially battle-derived. The small yield should not be extrapolated into a complete ammunition distribution for the battlefield.
Excavated projectile; possible battle association
Archaeological source
Cromdale
1690 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Government troops surprised and defeated Buchan’s force near Cromdale.
Landscape: The Haughs of Cromdale and river-side district are the main geographical reference.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Aughrim
1691 CE · Ireland · Located battlefield vicinity
A Williamite victory over the Jacobites helped decide the war in Ireland. The marker indicates the battlefield near Aughrim.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Lead bullets from the 2005 Luttrell’s Pass survey
Seven bullets were assessed as battle-related. Their calibres and impact evidence inform interpretation of mounted troops and the rout, without identifying individual firers.
Controlled survey; battle attribution from date and context
Archaeological source - Probable grenade fragment at Luttrell’s Pass
A curved metal fragment was interpreted as part of a hand grenade. It provides a different class of military evidence from the bullets; its identification remains qualified.
Recorded survey find; probable identification
Archaeological source - James II gun-money shilling of 1689
A positively identified shilling occurs with three further possible gun-money pieces. They are one coin group, not four separately confirmed identifications.
Survey coin group; one secure identification
Archaeological source - Seventeenth-century shoe buckle from Luttrell’s Pass
The published buckle may date to the battle. Its recovery is recorded, but neither ownership nor loss during the rout can be proved.
Recorded find; battle association possible
Archaeological source - Lead badge from the Luttrell’s Pass assemblage
A lead badge is another potentially contemporary object. The author treats its battle date as possible; no named wearer or specific military allegiance is established.
Recorded small find; uncertain battle attribution
Archaeological source
Sheriffmuir
1715 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
The armies fought an indecisive battle in which each side’s right wing defeated its opponent. Mar failed to exploit his greater numbers.
Landscape: The moor above Dunblane and its approaches form a battlefield altered by planting and later land use.
Location evidence: Historical accounts and archaeological survey support the landscape identification, while the opening formations remain interpreted.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket balls, buttons, a buckle and horse-related finds
The Scottish inventory describes recorded artefact scatters around parts of the moor and adjacent fields. Their spatial pattern contributes to reconstruction, but individual objects may have uncertain battle associations.
Survey evidence; individual associations require contextual interpretation
Archaeological source
Preston (1715)
1715 CE · England · Approximate location
The Jacobites were defeated after street fighting and blockade at Preston.
Landscape: The town’s streets and defended approaches distinguish this action from the battle of 1648.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Glen Shiel
1719 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
Government troops defeated the Jacobite-led force in Glen Shiel.
Landscape: The steep glen and hillsides constrained movement and the use of firepower.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Coehorn mortar-shell fragments from the Jacobite right
National Trust for Scotland archaeologists recovered shell fragments on the knoll south of the River Shiel. They interpret these as evidence of Government mortar fire against the Jacobite position.
Documented 2019 archaeological recovery
Archaeological source - Musket ball from the 2019 investigation
The same investigation recovered a musket ball interpreted by the excavators as Government fire against the Jacobites. This is a separate find from the mortar fragments, not evidence for a named shooter.
Documented archaeological recovery; firing side interpreted
Archaeological source
Prestonpans
1745 CE · Scotland · Located battlefield vicinity
Charles Edward Stuart’s Jacobites defeated Sir John Cope’s government army east of Edinburgh.
Location evidence: The linked source provides the historical and location evidence for this entry. The point is an orientation marker, not a surveyed battlefield boundary. Precise tactical positions are not claimed.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket balls, grapeshot and buttons reported from gardens
The University of Glasgow project records mid-eighteenth-century finds from gardens near the battlefield core. These reports indicate survival beneath later development, but do not make every object from the surrounding area battle debris.
Project-recorded garden finds; individual contexts vary
Archaeological source
Clifton Moor
1745 CE · England · Approximate location
A rearguard engagement checked pursuit during the Jacobite retreat north.
Landscape: The Clifton district south of Penrith, with roads and enclosures, formed the setting.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Culloden
1746 CE · Scotland · Located battlefield vicinity
The Duke of Cumberland defeated Charles Edward Stuart’s Jacobite army. The battlefield survives as a memorial landscape.
Landscape: Culloden Moor east of Inverness retains a memorial landscape within a much larger historic setting.
Location evidence: Archaeology, contemporary plans and documentary evidence inform the surviving battlefield. Drainage, planting and later boundaries altered the moor.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Musket balls, cannon shot and mortar-shell fragments
Archaeological surveys have recovered a substantial projectile assemblage. Recorded find locations help reconstruct fire and movement across the moor.
Documented battlefield survey finds
Archaeological source - Buckles, buttons and personal objects
The archaeological assemblage includes clothing fittings, personal possessions, a pewter cross and a bayonet. Attribution of an individual object to a named person may remain an interpretation.
Documented objects; some individual identifications remain tentative
Archaeological source - Broken buckle and impacted grapeshot recovered together in 2023
These two objects came from the same hole near the Government front line. Their juxtaposition may record an impact on footwear. The suggested link to Cameron of Lochiel is intriguing but cannot identify an individual owner.
Recorded paired recovery; named-person attribution speculative
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: National Trust for Scotland, Culloden
The Trust reports this recent discovery. Do not assume this particular pair is on display.
- Complete Coehorn mortar shell discovered in October 2025
The Trust reports a complete shell recovered during supervised fieldwork and announced in April 2026. It is distinct from the exploded fragments described in earlier surveys. Government firing is an archaeological interpretation.
Documented recent excavation; complete artillery projectile
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: National Trust for Scotland, Culloden
The Trust discusses a new display of the shell. Confirm current exhibition arrangements before visiting.
- Projectile assemblage from the October 2025 fieldwork
More than one hundred projectiles, including musket and pistol ammunition, were recovered during the same fieldwork. This is the recent survey assemblage, separate from the complete shell and the older material already listed.
Recorded 2025 archaeological assemblage
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: National Trust for Scotland, Culloden
Individual projectiles’ display status is not confirmed.
Falkirk (1746)
1746 CE · Scotland · Approximate location
The Jacobites defeated Hawley’s army on Falkirk Muir during the 1745–46 rising.
Landscape: The high ground south-west of Falkirk, with a ravine and exposed moorland, shaped fighting in poor weather.
Location evidence: The accepted moorland district and accounts locate the broad site. Modern development and later planting obscure some relationships.
Siege of Fort William
1746 CE · Scotland · Located battlefield vicinity
Jacobite forces besieged Fort William in March and early April 1746 but failed to capture the Government stronghold.
Landscape: The fort remains and nearby hills must be considered alongside the archaeological evidence from the former town of Maryburgh.
Location evidence: The point marks the old fort. Artillery fragments and burned deposits may have been recovered at separate locations in the wider siege landscape.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Government-marked cannonball from the old fort
The museum catalogues an iron ball bearing a Government arrow. Its recovery at the fort is documented, but the catalogue does not demonstrate that it was fired during the 1746 siege.
Museum-catalogued fort find; specific battle date unproven
Archaeological sourceHolding collection: West Highland Museum · Catalogue 774
Display status varies. Confirm individual objects before visiting.
- Knives, cannon and bullet moulds recovered during railway works
The museum describes military and domestic material recovered when the old fort was disturbed in the 1890s. This is a broader garrison assemblage; individual objects cannot all be assigned to 1746.
Historical recovery report; broad garrison association
Archaeological source - Mortar fragments recovered near Sugar Loaf Hill
A museum-led account records recovered cast-iron fragments interpreted as Government mortar fire towards the Jacobite artillery positions. Present custody of those fragments is not specified.
Reported archaeological recovery; firing direction interpreted
Archaeological source - Burning deposits and midden material at The Parade
The 2007 investigation exposed material interpreted as evidence for the burning of Maryburgh during the siege. This concerns the civilian settlement beside the fort, not objects necessarily dropped in the fort’s fighting line.
Excavated deposits; link to documented destruction interpreted
Archaeological source
The siege ran from 20 March to 3 April 1746. Some older fort finds cannot be dated specifically to it.
New Ross
1798 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
Insurgents attacked New Ross but failed to secure the town after intense fighting and repeated changes of control.
Landscape: The town’s eastern approaches, former gates, streets and Barrow crossing shaped the urban battle.
Location evidence: The town is a secure setting. Memorials and later street changes require care when locating specific episodes.
Vinegar Hill
1798 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
Crown forces overran the insurgent camp above Enniscorthy, a major defeat in the Wexford rebellion.
Landscape: The hilltop, surviving windmill and surrounding approaches provide a recognisable landscape.
Location evidence: The windmill is associated with the rebel command position. It is not proof of the precise extent of every defensive line.
Archaeological finds and collections
- Shot, lead scraps, buttons and coin from path monitoring
Monitoring of path works in 2014 recovered four musket balls with lead scraps, buttons and a coin. No archaeological features were identified. The report records the assemblage without assigning every object to the 1798 engagement.
Excavation-monitoring finds; individual battle associations unconfirmed
Archaeological source - The Longest Day survey assemblage, 2017
A licensed survey recovered 578 artefacts, including more than 80 lead shot, over fourteen hectares. This is a separate investigation from the 2014 path works already listed. The report identifies strong battle-related material while reserving detailed analysis for the final study.
Licensed battlefield survey; assemblage includes material of different dates
Archaeological source - Possible shot-making waste from Drumgold, 2012
A survey east of the hill recovered one fragment interpreted as possible lead-shot waste associated with 1798. The project found very little potential battle material in that area; the fragment is not evidence of a major fighting concentration.
Single possible battle-related find; attribution uncertain
Archaeological source
Castlebar
1798 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
French and Irish forces routed the crown army in the encounter remembered as the Races of Castlebar.
Landscape: The approaches to Castlebar and fighting through the town formed a landscape extending beyond one square.
Location evidence: Local historical accounts anchor the setting. The marker represents the district, not the whole route of the retreat.
Oulart Hill
1798 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
The insurgents defeated a crown detachment on Oulart Hill.
Landscape: The hill and approaches near Oulart are the principal reference landscape.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Enniscorthy (May 1798)
1798 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
Insurgents captured Enniscorthy in late May, before the later defeat at Vinegar Hill.
Landscape: The town, Slaney crossing and streets form an urban battlefield separate from the June hilltop action.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Arklow
1798 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
The insurgent attempt to take Arklow was repulsed.
Landscape: The southern approaches, town and Avoca crossing provide the operational setting.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Ballinamuck
1798 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
Humbert’s French force surrendered after defeat; Irish participants faced a different and harsher aftermath.
Landscape: The village, nearby hills and retreat routes form a battlefield larger than a single commemorative point.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.
Tubberneering
1798 CE · Ireland · Approximate location
Insurgents defeated the column south of Gorey, and Walpole was killed.
Landscape: The Toberanierin townlands and roads south of Gorey frame the encounter.
Location evidence: The linked source identifies the general setting. This point is for orientation, not a surveyed perimeter; individual positions and routes require landscape reconstruction.