The Middle Ages, stretching from the fall of Rome to the dawn of the Renaissance, were defined by conflict. Dynasties rose and fell on the battlefield, faiths collided, and weapons evolved from mail and spear to cannon and gunpowder. The following list ranks twenty of the most consequential medieval wars in reverse order. Each section combines narrative with structured detail for clarity and reference.
20. The Norman Conquest of England (1066–1071)
William, Duke of Normandy, invaded England after claiming the throne. The Battle of Hastings in 1066 proved decisive, with Harold II slain and English resistance broken.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Hastings (1066): Decisive Norman victory.
- Siege of Ely (1071): Final resistance crushed.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | William the Conqueror; Harold II Godwinson |
| Troops | 8,000 Normans; 7,000 Anglo-Saxons |
| Weapons | Norman cavalry with lances, kite shields; English axes, spears, shields. Norman arming swords (Oakeshott Type X), Anglo-Saxon spathae, two-handed Dane axes (not swords but central to housecarls) |
| Outcome | William crowned King of England |
| Legacy | Transformed English language, law, and aristocracy |
19. The Almoravid–Almohad Conflicts (12th–13th centuries)
Rival Berber dynasties clashed for control of North Africa and Iberia, weakening Muslim rule in Spain.
Major Battles:
- Battle of al-Buḥayra (1132): Almoravid resistance.
- Battle of Alarcos (1195): Almohad victory over Castile.
- Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212): Crushing Almohad defeat.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Ibn Tumart; Abd al-Mu’min; Ali ibn Yusuf |
| Troops | 20,000–60,000 |
| Weapons | Spears, curved swords, javelins, composite bows. Curved saif, straight double-edged Maghrebi blades, imported Andalusian swords influenced by spatha designs |
| Outcome | Almohads replaced Almoravids but fragmented later |
| Legacy | Opened Iberia to Christian advances |
18. The Italian Wars (1494–1559)
French kings and Habsburg rulers fought for Italy, drawing in Spain and the Papacy.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Fornovo (1495): French withdrawal.
- Battle of Pavia (1525): Spanish victory, Francis I captured.
- Sack of Rome (1527): Symbol of papal weakness.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Charles VIII; Ferdinand II of Aragon; Charles V |
| Troops | 20,000–50,000 per campaign |
| Weapons | Pike squares, arquebuses, cannon, heavy cavalry. Side-swords, early rapiers, estocs, two-handed montantes |
| Outcome | Spanish dominance in Italy |
| Legacy | Heralded early modern military systems |
17. The Hussite Wars (1419–1434)
Religious conflict erupted in Bohemia after the execution of reformer Jan Hus.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Sudoměř (1420): Early Hussite success.
- Battle of Vítkov Hill (1420): Defence of Prague.
- Battle of Lipany (1434): Defeat of radical Hussites.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Jan Žižka; Prokop the Great; Sigismund of Luxembourg |
| Troops | 15,000–25,000 Hussites; larger crusading armies |
| Weapons | Wagenburgs, flails, handguns, crossbows. Arming swords, falchions, early longswords |
| Outcome | Hussites retained religious autonomy |
| Legacy | Innovated gunpowder and defensive tactics |
16. The Reconquista (711–1492)
Christian kingdoms gradually reconquered Iberia from Muslim rule, culminating in the fall of Granada.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Covadonga (722): Symbolic beginning.
- Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212): Turning point.
- Siege of Granada (1491–1492): End of Muslim rule.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | El Cid; Ferdinand III; Isabella and Ferdinand; Boabdil |
| Troops | From knightly retinues to 70,000 at Granada |
| Weapons | Swords, lances, crossbows, siege artillery. Spanish espadas, Moorish saif, jineta-style sabres, longswords by late Reconquista |
| Outcome | End of Muslim rule in Iberia |
| Legacy | United Spain and spurred overseas expansion |
15. The War of the Sicilian Vespers (1282–1302)
A popular revolt in Sicily drew in Aragon and France, reshaping Mediterranean politics.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Nicotera (1282): Sicilian revolt consolidates.
- Battle of the Gulf of Naples (1284): Aragonese naval victory.
- Battle of Falconaria (1299): Secured Aragonese position.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Peter III of Aragon; Charles I of Anjou |
| Troops | 20,000–40,000 |
| Weapons | Swords, crossbows, spears, galleys. Arming swords, falchions, straight double-edged Italian blades |
| Outcome | Sicily under Aragonese control |
| Legacy | Ended French dominance in southern Italy |
14. The Baltic Crusades (12th–13th centuries)
German and Scandinavian crusaders launched wars against pagan Baltic peoples.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Saule (1236): Livonian Order crushed.
- Battle of Lake Peipus (1242): Defeat against Novgorod.
- Battle of Durbe (1260): Lithuanian victory.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Albert of Riga; Valdemar II; Teutonic Grand Masters |
| Troops | 10,000–20,000 crusaders; smaller tribal forces |
| Weapons | Lances, swords, crossbows, fortified castles. Teutonic knightly arming swords (Oakeshott Type XI), Baltic single-edged short swords |
| Outcome | Establishment of crusader states |
| Legacy | Christianisation of the Baltic and rise of the Teutonic Order |
13. The Anglo-Norman Invasion of Ireland (1169–1171)
Norman adventurers intervened in Irish dynastic struggles, securing footholds for England.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Baginbun (1170): Decisive Norman success.
- Capture of Dublin (1171): Strategic conquest.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Richard de Clare (Strongbow); Dermot MacMurrough |
| Troops | 3,000 Normans plus Irish allies |
| Weapons | Norman lances, mail armour; Irish axes and spears. Norman arming swords, Irish ring-pommel swords, axes as secondary weapons |
| Outcome | Anglo-Norman control of Leinster |
| Legacy | Began centuries of Anglo-Irish conflict |
12. The War of the Breton Succession (1341–1364)
A dynastic conflict tied closely to the Hundred Years’ War.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Morlaix (1342): English-supported victory.
- Battle of Auray (1364): Decisive Montfort triumph.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Charles of Blois; John of Montfort; Bertrand du Guesclin |
| Troops | 10,000–30,000 |
| Weapons | Longbows, swords, lances, crossbows. Longswords (Oakeshott Type XV and XVIII), baselards, daggers |
| Outcome | Montfort victory with English support |
| Legacy | Highlighted English–French rivalry |
11. The Byzantine–Arab Wars (7th–11th centuries)
The early Caliphates challenged Byzantine dominance across the Levant, Egypt, and Anatolia.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Yarmouk (636): Byzantine collapse in Levant.
- Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717–718): Byzantine survival.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Heraclius; Muawiya I; Basil II |
| Troops | 20,000–60,000 |
| Weapons | Cataphracts with lances, Arab cavalry with sabres, bows. Byzantine spathae, paramerion (curved sabre), Arab saif |
| Outcome | Byzantines survived but lost key provinces |
| Legacy | Defined Christian–Muslim frontiers |
10. The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487)
Civil wars between Lancaster and York ended with the rise of the Tudors.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Towton (1461): Bloodiest English battle.
- Battle of Barnet (1471): Edward IV restored.
- Battle of Bosworth (1485): Henry Tudor victorious.
- Every Battle from Wars of the Roses
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Richard III; Edward IV; Henry Tudor |
| Troops | 10,000–30,000 |
| Weapons | Longbows, bills, swords, handguns. Longswords (Type XVa), estocs, falchions |
| Outcome | Henry Tudor crowned Henry VII |
| Legacy | Founded Tudor dynasty and centralised monarchy |
9. The Scottish Wars of Independence (1296–1357)
Scotland resisted English conquest under Wallace and Bruce.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Stirling Bridge (1297): Scottish victory.
- Battle of Falkirk (1298): English longbow dominance.
- Battle of Bannockburn (1314): Decisive Scottish triumph.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | William Wallace; Robert the Bruce; Edward I and II |
| Troops | 6,000–20,000 |
| Weapons | Schiltrons, longbows, cavalry charges. Scottish claymores (early two-handed), arming swords, English longswords |
| Outcome | Treaty of Berwick recognised Scottish independence |
| Legacy | Cemented Scottish sovereignty |
8. The Norman Invasion of Southern Italy (11th century)
Norman knights carved out a powerful Mediterranean kingdom.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Civitate (1053): Normans defeat papal army.
- Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081): Against Byzantines.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Robert Guiscard; Roger II |
| Troops | Knightly retinues with local levies |
| Weapons | Lances, swords, kite shields, bows. Norman arming swords, Lombard spathae |
| Outcome | Kingdom of Sicily established |
| Legacy | Cultural crossroads of Latin, Greek, and Arab influences |
7. The German–Polish Wars (10th–13th centuries)
Holy Roman Emperors clashed repeatedly with emerging Polish rulers.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Cedynia (972): Polish victory.
- Battle of Bautzen (1002): Control over Lusatia contested.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Otto I; Bolesław I; Henry II |
| Troops | 10,000–40,000 |
| Weapons | Heavy cavalry, spears, axes. Carolingian swords (10th century), later knightly arming swords |
| Outcome | Poland retained independence |
| Legacy | Defined Central European power balance |
6. The Northern Crusades against Novgorod (13th century)
Western crusaders sought to subdue Orthodox Russia but met fierce resistance.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Lake Peipus (1242): Iconic Russian victory.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Alexander Nevsky; Teutonic Knights |
| Troops | 10,000–20,000 |
| Weapons | Swords, axes, bows, crossbows. Teutonic longswords, Russian straight double-edged swords (akin to Viking Type H/I), sabres |
| Outcome | Nevsky preserved Novgorod’s independence |
| Legacy | Secured Orthodox influence in Russia |
5. The Byzantine–Seljuk Wars (11th century)
The Seljuks shattered Byzantine control of Anatolia after Manzikert.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Manzikert (1071): Decisive Seljuk victory.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Romanos IV; Alp Arslan; Alexios I |
| Troops | 20,000–40,000 |
| Weapons | Cataphracts, Turkish horse archers, spears. Byzantine spathae, paramerion; Seljuk kilij (early curved sabre) |
| Outcome | Seljuk control of Anatolia |
| Legacy | Sparked the First Crusade |
4. The Viking Wars in Europe (8th–11th centuries)
Scandinavian raids reshaped kingdoms across Britain, Ireland, and France.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Edington (878): Alfred halts Vikings.
- Battle of Clontarf (1014): End of Viking dominance in Ireland.
- Great Heathen Army Campaign
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Alfred the Great; Cnut the Great; Ragnar (legendary) |
| Troops | Warbands of hundreds to thousands |
| Weapons | Viking swords, axes, spears, shields, longships. Petersen Type H and S Viking swords, Anglo-Saxon spathae |
| Outcome | Danelaw in England, Normans in France |
| Legacy | Shaped English and Norman state formation |
3. The Mongol Invasions of Europe (13th century)
Mongol armies swept across Eastern and Central Europe, defeating every major foe.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Legnica (1241): Mongol victory in Poland.
- Battle of Mohi (1241): Hungary devastated.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Batu Khan; Subutai |
| Troops | 100,000–150,000 Mongols |
| Weapons | Composite bows, sabres, lances, siege engines. Mongol sabres, curved steppe blades, captured European arming swords |
| Outcome | Withdrawal after devastation |
| Legacy | Military shock spurred European reform |
2. The Crusades (1096–1291)
A century of holy wars saw Christian crusaders carve out and then lose the Holy Land.
Major Battles:
- Siege of Antioch (1097–1098): First Crusade breakthrough.
- Battle of Hattin (1187): Saladin’s victory.
- Siege of Acre (1291): End of Crusader presence.
- Biggest Battles of the Crusades
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Richard the Lionheart; Saladin; Baldwin IV; Nur al-Din |
| Troops | Tens of thousands on each side |
| Weapons | Swords, lances, crossbows, bows, siege engines. Crusader arming swords (Type XII–XIV), Saracen saif, early sabres |
| Outcome | Crusader states lost by 1291 |
| Legacy | Deepened Christian–Muslim divide, shaped Mediterranean trade |
1. The Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453)
England and France fought for the French crown in a long dynastic struggle.
Major Battles:
- Battle of Crécy (1346): Longbow dominance.
- Battle of Poitiers (1356): Edward the Black Prince victorious.
- Battle of Agincourt (1415): Henry V’s triumph.
- Siege of Orléans (1429): Joan of Arc’s turning point.
- Battle of Castillon (1453): Final French victory.
- Every Battle of the Hundred Years’ War
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Commanders | Edward III; Henry V; Joan of Arc; Charles VII |
| Troops | 10,000–30,000 in major battles |
| Weapons | Longbows, pikes, swords, hand cannons. Outcome. English longswords (Type XVa, XVIII), French estocs, baselards, daggers |
| Outcome | France expelled the English |
| Legacy | Forged national identities and ended feudal chivalry |
The Seven Swords Takeaway
The great wars of the Middle Ages reshaped nations and identities across Europe and beyond. They were fought with swords and lances, longbows and early firearms, but their true impact lay in the shifting of dynasties, faiths, and borders. From the Norman Conquest to the Hundred Years’ War, these conflicts forged the path toward the modern world.
