The Battle of Nicopolis, fought on 25 September 1396, was a pivotal clash between a crusading alliance of European forces and the expanding Ottoman Empire. It marked the culmination of the last major crusade of the Middle Ages and ended in a devastating defeat for the Christian coalition. The battle took place near the Danube River at the fortress town of Nicopolis, in what is now northern Bulgaria.
Historical Context
By the late 14th century, the Ottoman Empire had secured a firm foothold in the Balkans. The call for a crusade came from King Sigismund of Hungary, alarmed by the steady Ottoman advance. Pope Boniface IX endorsed the campaign, and a host of European nobles, particularly from France and Burgundy, answered the call with visions of glory and religious zeal. The crusaders severely underestimated their opponent.
Forces Involved
| Side | Commander(s) | Estimated Troop Strength | Composition |
|---|---|---|---|
| Christian Crusaders | John the Fearless (Burgundy), Count of Nevers; King Sigismund of Hungary | c. 15,000–20,000 | French, Hungarian, German, Wallachian, English, Polish, Knights Hospitaller |
| Ottoman Empire | Sultan Bayezid I (“Yıldırım” – the Thunderbolt), with Serbian vassal Stefan Lazarević | c. 20,000–25,000 | Ottoman regulars, Janissaries, sipahis, Serbian heavy cavalry |
Leaders and Troop Composition
Christian Coalition:
King Sigismund of Hungary
- John the Fearless, leading the French and Burgundians, many of whom were heavily armoured knights.
- King Sigismund, Hungarian monarch and overall strategic planner.
- Mircea the Elder, Voivode of Wallachia, contributing mobile light cavalry.
- Smaller contingents came from Germany, England (volunteers, not official), and the Knights Hospitaller.
Ottoman Forces:
Sultan Bayezid I
- Bayezid I, experienced and ruthless commander with disciplined forces.
- Stefan Lazarević, Serbian prince and vassal to Bayezid, brought armoured cavalry who fought effectively alongside the Ottomans.
- The Ottoman ranks included the Janissaries, elite infantry, and sipahi cavalry, combining discipline with tactical agility.
Arms and Armour
Christian Crusaders:
- Swords:
- Arming swords: Widely used by knights; double-edged, single-handed blades suited for close combat.
- Estocs: Narrow thrusting swords effective against plate armour.
- Longswords: Employed by higher-ranking knights and men-at-arms for versatility and reach.
- Armour:
- Full plate armour: Especially common among French and Burgundian knights. Articulated plate provided excellent protection but reduced mobility.
- Mail hauberks: Still worn under plate or by lighter cavalry and infantry.
- Great helms and bascinets: Bascinets with visors were increasingly favoured for their improved vision and ventilation.
Ottoman Army:
- Swords:
- Kilij: A curved, single-edged sabre ideal for slashing in mounted combat. Distinctive Ottoman weapon.
- Yatagan (early forms): Shorter swords occasionally used by elite infantry.
- Armour:
- Lamellar and scale armour: Common among sipahi cavalry and elite troops.
- Mail coats: Worn with padded garments for additional flexibility.
- Kulah khuds: Domed helmets, sometimes with chain mail aventails.
Battle Timeline
- Early September 1396: Crusader forces begin siege of Nicopolis without full reconnaissance.
- Mid-September: Ottoman forces march rapidly north in response, joined by Serbian contingents.
- 25 September: Battle begins. French knights launch a headstrong charge, routing Ottoman irregulars but advancing too far.
- Midday: French forces, overextended and unsupported, face a counterattack by Bayezid’s main force.
- Afternoon: Hungarian and allied reserves engage but cannot recover momentum.
- Evening: Complete rout of the crusader army. Thousands are killed; many nobles captured.
Archaeology and Site Evidence
Nicopolis remains have yielded several artefacts linked to the battle:
- Arrowheads, crossbow bolts, and remains of horses suggest large-scale mounted combat.
- Excavated graves in the area contain the remains of warriors in both chainmail and plated armour, consistent with mixed combat styles.
- Artefacts such as a damaged arming sword and Ottoman stirrups now held in Bulgarian museums.
Contemporary English Quotes and Perspectives
While England’s official involvement was limited, some English chroniclers and participants reflected on the event.
From Thomas Walsingham, chronicler at St Albans:
“The French, carried by pride and unseasoned youth, fell into the net of the heathen, who did not fail to spring it shut. Those who went seeking glory returned in silence—if they returned at all.”
An unnamed English knight, quoted in a London letter:
“Our friends lie butchered not for lack of courage, but for the want of counsel and measure.”
Aftermath and Legacy
The defeat at Nicopolis shattered the illusion that a feudal crusade could resist the professionalised Ottoman army. Many captured nobles were executed, though some were ransomed. Sigismund narrowly escaped by ship down the Danube.
Bayezid’s authority in the Balkans grew, though his ambitions were later checked by Timur at the Battle of Ankara in 1402.
Nicopolis stands as a lesson in poor coordination, underestimating an enemy, and the fatal cost of noble arrogance in warfare. It was also the last major pan-European crusading effort before the fall of Constantinople.
Watch the documentary:
