The Battle of Marathon, fought in 490 BC, was a pivotal moment in the Greco-Persian Wars. It marked the first major victory of the Greek city-states over the expansive Persian Empire. Despite facing a significantly larger enemy force, the Athenians managed to halt Persian expansion into mainland Greece. The battle is remembered for its tactical ingenuity, the discipline of the hoplite phalanx, and its long-lasting symbolic value in the defence of democratic ideals.
Background
Following the Ionian Revolt, in which Athens had supported rebellious Greek cities in Asia Minor, the Persian king Darius I sought to punish Athens and Eretria. His campaign led him across the Aegean Sea, targeting these cities directly. After sacking Eretria, the Persians landed at the Bay of Marathon, roughly 26 miles northeast of Athens.
The Athenians, knowing they could not rely on much outside support, marched quickly to Marathon to block the route to Athens. A small force of Plataeans joined them, honouring their alliance.
Forces Involved
| Side | Approximate Numbers | Composition |
|---|---|---|
| Athens | ~9,000 hoplites | Citizen-soldiers in heavy infantry gear |
| Plataea | ~1,000 hoplites | Allied city-state hoplite force |
| Persia | ~20,000 infantry | Light infantry, archers, and cavalry units |
The Persian force may have been larger, with some estimates exceeding 25,000. However, the figure of around 20,000 is more consistent with logistical limitations of the time.
Leaders and Command Structure
Greek Command:
- Miltiades (Athenian general and former tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese)
- Callimachus (Athenian polemarch who cast the deciding vote to engage in battle)
- Other strategoi (e.g. Aristides, Themistocles) played supporting roles
Persian Command:
- Datis (Median admiral and general)
- Artaphernes (Nephew of Darius I and co-commander)
Greek leadership was decentralised but ultimately acted under the strategy proposed by Miltiades, who advocated for immediate engagement before the Persians could advance inland or receive reinforcements.
Arms and Armour
Greek Hoplites:
- Helmet: Bronze Corinthian-style helmets with cheek guards and crest
- Cuirass: Bronze or linen thorax armour (linothorax)
- Shield: Large round aspis (hoplon) made of wood and bronze
- Spear: Doru, approximately 2.4–3 metres in length
- Sword: Short xiphos or curved kopis for close combat
- Greaves: Bronze to protect the lower leg
Persian Infantry:
- Helmet: Wicker or felt caps, sometimes with leather protection
- Armour: Quilted tunics, scale armour on elite units
- Shield: Light wicker shields
- Spear: Shorter spears, less effective against heavy infantry
- Bow: Composite bow, highly effective at range
- Sword: Short acinaces for sidearm combat
The disparity in equipment was crucial. Greek hoplites were heavily armoured and trained for hand-to-hand combat, while Persian troops were more lightly equipped and relied on archery and cavalry manoeuvres.
Battle Timeline
| Date | Event |
|---|---|
| Early September 490 BC | Persian fleet lands at Marathon Bay |
| Days following | Greeks block valley access, hold defensive line at Marathon |
| 5–9 days later | Miltiades convinces generals and polemarch to attack |
| Day of Battle | Greeks charge across the plain and break the Persian wings |
| Immediate aftermath | Persian centre briefly holds before retreating to ships |
| Post-battle | Persians sail to Athens but find it defended and turn back |
The Greek attack across the plain was a rare offensive use of the hoplite phalanx. By thinning the centre and reinforcing the flanks, Miltiades ensured that his troops enveloped the Persian wings after their collapse.
Archaeological Evidence
- Tumulus of the Athenians: Burial mound for the 192 Athenian dead, still visible today
- Plataean tomb: Nearby mound commemorating the fallen allies
- Weapon finds: Arrowheads and bronze fittings unearthed in the area
- Terrain studies: Scholars have mapped the coastal plain and marshlands, confirming the strategic choices made by the Greeks
Archaeology supports the ancient accounts of the battle’s location and the relative positions of forces. The marshes to the north and south shaped the battlefield, funnelling the Persians into a narrow front.
Contemporary Quotes
Herodotus, Histories, Book VI:
“The Athenians, reinforced by the Plataeans, fell upon the barbarians, and the gods gave them victory. Never before had men fought so bravely.”
Simonides, quoted fragmentarily:
“At Marathon the Athenians laid low the might of the Medes.”
These accounts, though written years later, reflect the immense pride and symbolic value Athenians placed on their stand at Marathon.
Legacy
- Political: The victory gave democratic Athens immense prestige and helped bolster the emerging civic identity
- Military: Proved that Persian infantry could be defeated in open battle by a citizen army
- Cultural: Marathon became a symbol of Greek resilience. The legendary run from Marathon to Athens by Pheidippides gave rise to the modern marathon race
- Strategic: Delayed Persian conquest of Greece by a decade, buying time for cities to build alliances and prepare defences
The Battle of Marathon was not just a military event but a defining moment in Western history. It preserved the fledgling democratic structures of Athens and inspired future resistance against overwhelming odds. Its memory resonated through antiquity and remains one of the most studied battles in military history.
Watch the documentary:
