Historical Context
By 732 AD, the Umayyad Caliphate, having conquered the Iberian Peninsula (711–718 AD), launched razzias (raids) northward into Frankish territories. These incursions, led by Governor Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, aimed at plunder rather than permanent conquest. Charles Martel, Mayor of the Frankish Palace and de facto ruler, mobilised a multi-ethnic force of Franks, Burgundians, and Aquitanians to counter the threat.
Forces & Leadership
Frankish Forces
- Commander: Charles Martel (688–741 AD)
- A seasoned strategist, Martel had consolidated power after victories at Vincy (717 AD) and Soissons (719 AD). His innovative use of levied infantry and elite scara (mounted retinues) marked a shift from Merovingian reliance on cavalry.
- Strength: Estimated 15,000–25,000 troops, primarily heavy infantry with axes, swords, and spears. Smaller cavalry units were held in reserve.
- Composition: Core of Frankish fyrd (levied freemen), supported by armoured antrustiones (elite bodyguards).
Umayyad Forces
- Commander: Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi (d. 732 AD)
- A veteran of the Iberian campaigns, Al Ghafiqi governed Al-Andalus’ northern frontier. His forces comprised Arab cavalry and Berber light infantry.
- Strength: Likely 10,000–20,000 troops, including 5,000–10,000 cavalry.
- Composition: Elite Arab Khurasaniyya (heavy cavalry) armed with lances and scimitars; Berber javelinmen and archers.
Note: Contemporary sources, such as the Mozarabic Chronicle of 754, provide no precise figures. Later Carolingian chronicles (e.g., Chronicle of Fredegar) likely inflated numbers for propaganda.
Battle Overview
Location: Likely near modern Moussais-la-Bataille, between Poitiers and Tours. The Franks occupied a wooded slope, neutralising the Umayyad cavalry’s mobility.
Key Phases:
- Umayyad Cavalry Charges: Arab horsemen repeatedly assaulted the Frankish shield wall but struggled in dense terrain.
- Frankish Flank Attack: Martel’s reserves reportedly raided the Umayyad camp, seizing plunder and disrupting logistics.
- Death of Al Ghafiqi: The governor fell during a chaotic retreat, though primary sources disagree on whether he died in combat or was assassinated.
- Umayyad Withdrawal: Leaderless and outmanoeuvred, the surviving forces retreated to Iberia.
Weapons & Tactics
Franks:
- Shield Wall: Tight infantry formation with overlapping kite shields.
- Terrain Advantage: Forests hindered cavalry charges, forcing Umayyad forces into piecemeal attacks.
Umayyads:
- Cavalry Dominance: Relied on karr wa farr (hit-and-run) tactics, ineffective in confined spaces.
- Logistical Strain: Overextended supply lines limited sustained operations.
Significance: Overstated or Pivotal?
Traditional View:
- Hailed as saving Christendom, notably by 19th-century historians like Edward Gibbon.
Modern Reassessment:
- Limited Strategic Impact: The Umayyads, focused on raids, lacked resources for permanent conquest. Internal strife (e.g., Berber Revolts of 740–743 AD) weakened their Iberian hold.
- Symbolic Victory: Martel’s triumph bolstered Frankish prestige, aiding Carolingian ascendancy. His grandson Charlemagne later established the Marca Hispanica (Spanish March) as a buffer zone.
Historiographical Debate:
- Paul K. Davis (1999): Argues Tours “preserved Western Christianity” by halting Umayyad momentum.
- Alessandro Barbero (2004): Contends the battle was a “mere raid” magnified by later chroniclers.
Legacy
- Carolingian Dynasty: Martel’s victory cemented his authority, enabling his son Pepin the Short to claim kingship (751 AD).
- Military Evolution: Frankish infantry tactics influenced later medieval warfare, though cavalry regained dominance by the 11th century.
- Cultural Myth: Romanticised during the Crusades as a clash of civilisations, despite the Umayyads’ multi-faith armies.
While the Battle of Tours did not single-handedly “save Europe,” it marked a critical juncture in Frankish ascendancy. Its legacy lies less in immediate territorial gains than in shaping the political and cultural trajectory of medieval Western Europe
Suggested Further Reading:
- The Age of Charles Martel by Paul Fouracre (2000).
- The Great Arab Conquests by Hugh Kennedy (2007).
