The Battle of Granicus, fought in May 334 BC, marked the first major engagement of Alexander the Great’s campaign against the Persian Empire. Taking place near the Granicus River in northwestern Asia Minor, the clash set the tone for a series of victories that would eventually bring down the Achaemenid dynasty.
Alexander’s bold tactics and personal leadership contrasted with the Persian reliance on a heavily armoured cavalry and Greek mercenaries, creating a decisive confrontation that reshaped the balance of power in the ancient world.
Forces
| Army | Estimated Strength | Composition |
|---|---|---|
| Macedonian Army | c. 32,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry | Macedonian phalanx, Companion cavalry, Thessalian cavalry, light infantry |
| Persian Army | c. 20,000 cavalry and 15,000 infantry (including 5,000 Greek mercenaries) | Persian heavy cavalry, light cavalry, Greek mercenary hoplites, missile troops |
Leaders and Troop Composition
Macedonian Side
- Alexander III of Macedon (commander)
- Parmenion (senior general, advised caution)
- Troops:
- Companion cavalry (Hetairoi) – elite heavy cavalry
- Hypaspists – elite infantry armed with spears and swords
- Macedonian phalanx – armed with long sarissas
- Light troops including Agrianians and archers
Persian Side
- Satraps of Asia Minor, including Arsites (satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia) and Spithridates
- Memnon of Rhodes (Greek mercenary commander)
- Troops:
- Heavy cavalry, often noble-born Persians in scale armour
- Greek mercenary hoplites with long spears and swords
- Light cavalry and archers positioned on the wings
Arms and Armour
Macedonian
- Swords: Kopis and Xiphos, used by cavalry and infantry for close combat
- Primary weapons:
- Sarissa (18–22 ft pike for phalanx)
- Spears and javelins for skirmishers
- Armour: Bronze helmets, linothorax or bronze cuirasses, greaves, round shields (for Hypaspists and cavalry)
Persian
- Swords: Akinakes (short Persian sword)
- Primary weapons:
- Cavalry spears and javelins
- Hoplite spears for Greek mercenaries
- Armour: Scale armour for cavalry, wicker or leather shields for light troops, hoplon shields for mercenaries
Battle Timeline
- Crossing of the Granicus River: Alexander personally led a charge across the river with his Companion cavalry, despite strong Persian cavalry resistance.
- Cavalry clash: Fierce fighting broke out on the riverbank. Alexander was targeted by Persian nobles and almost killed before Cleitus the Black saved his life by cutting down Spithridates.
- Engagement of the phalanx: The Macedonian infantry advanced once the Persian cavalry was locked in combat, driving back their opponents.
- Defeat of the Persians: Persian cavalry broke and fled, leaving the Greek mercenaries surrounded.
- Massacre of the mercenaries: Most of the Greek mercenaries were cut down, with survivors enslaved and sent to Macedon.
Archaeology
The exact battlefield has not been definitively located, but the Granicus River region in modern-day Turkey provides clues.
- Surveys have suggested possible crossing points that fit ancient descriptions of steep riverbanks and open plains.
- No major finds of weapons or armour have yet been uncovered, but small-scale local discoveries, such as spearheads and arrowheads, are consistent with the accounts of heavy fighting.
- Ancient sources, particularly Arrian and Plutarch, remain the primary basis for reconstructing the battle.
Contemporary Quotes
- Arrian, Anabasis of Alexander:
“Alexander, though the first to cross, was not thrown back into the river, but clung fast to the bank and fought hand to hand with the Persians.” - Plutarch, Life of Alexander:
“Cleitus struck off Spithridates’ arm, as he was lifting his scimitar against the king, and so saved Alexander’s life.”
Legacy
The Battle of Granicus demonstrated Alexander’s willingness to take risks and his effectiveness as a battlefield leader. By eliminating the Persian satrapal forces in Asia Minor, he secured a base for further campaigns deeper into the empire.
The victory also served as a symbolic warning: the Persian cavalry, long regarded as the empire’s elite, had been broken by Macedonian arms, and Alexander’s legend began to take shape.
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