The Border Reivers were not conventional soldiers, nor were they simply lawless brigands. They were a product of a fractured frontier, born from centuries of Anglo-Scottish conflict, weak central authority, and a deeply ingrained culture of kin loyalty and retaliatory justice. From the late 13th to early 17th century, they shaped warfare and survival along the Anglo-Scottish border in ways that left a lasting impact on both military tactics and regional identity.
Origins and Rise of the Reivers
The term “Reiver” comes from the Middle English reveren, meaning to rob or plunder. Reiving was not only tolerated in the Borders but became a way of life during the medieval period. Prolonged wars between England and Scotland, particularly from the Wars of Scottish Independence through to the Tudor period, created a power vacuum. In the absence of consistent royal authority, local clans and families took control, enforcing their own laws and forming defensive alliances.
Reiving escalated in the late 14th century and remained a constant feature of life in the Borders until the Union of the Crowns in 1603. Kings and wardens on both sides occasionally used Reiver clans as auxiliary forces, mercenaries, or informal militias, blurring the line between criminality and sanctioned violence.
Clan Feuds and Kinship Warfare
Warfare in the Borders was clan-based, personal, and persistent. Unlike the organised armies of the time, Reiver conflicts were dominated by surprise raids, retaliatory strikes, ambushes, and cattle theft. Feuds could last generations. Alliances were constantly shifting, often ignoring national loyalties.
Feuds between clans such as the Armstrongs and Elliots, or the Grahams and Maxwells, could be as deadly as any national war. Loyalty to the clan or family name outweighed loyalty to the crown. Oaths were made to lairds or heads of houses, not monarchs.
Sept Families and Inter-Clan Alliances
Most major Reiver clans had numerous septs and offshoots. These included:
- Armstrongs: One of the most powerful, known for strength in numbers and horse-mounted raids.
- Elliots: Fiercely independent, often allied with the Scotts but frequently in conflict with neighbours.
- Johnstones: Dominant in the western Borders, particularly active around Annandale.
- Maxwells: One of the more established noble houses, who shifted between roles as law enforcers and instigators.
- Grahams: Notorious for their involvement in cross-border raids, especially in the western marches.
- Nixons, Crosiers, Irvings, Bells, Charltons, and Ridleys: Among many lesser but no less dangerous families who played key roles in the border struggle.
Alliances were often tactical rather than hereditary. Clans might support one another in one generation and raid each other in the next. Marriages were often arranged for pragmatic purposes rather than bloodline prestige.
Notable People
- Johnnie Armstrong of Gilnockie: A legendary Reiver and symbol of defiance. He was executed by James V in 1530, supposedly under a false promise of safe conduct.
- William Elliot of Liddesdale: Known for his ambushes and resilience, he embodied the cunning tactics typical of Reiver warfare.
- Kinmont Willie Armstrong: Perhaps the most famous Reiver, rescued from Carlisle Castle in 1596 by Walter Scott of Buccleuch in a daring night raid that almost sparked war.
- Lord Maxwell and Johnstone of Lochwood: Bitter enemies whose feud culminated in the infamous Battle of Dryfe Sands in 1593.
Raids, Battles and Retaliation
Most Border warfare was not formal battle but swift, destructive raiding known as “hot trod” and “cold trod”. A hot trod followed immediately after a theft, with permission to ride armed and horn-blowing through enemy territory. Cold trods could be delayed but still involved collective punitive expeditions.
Major confrontations did occur, often as a result of escalating feuds or failed diplomacy. Notable examples include:
- Battle of Arkinholm (1455): Though more of a dynastic Scottish battle, it set precedents for involving Border clans in royal power struggles.
- Battle of Dryfe Sands (1593): A full-scale clan battle between the Johnstones and Maxwells with hundreds of fatalities.
- The Raid of the Redeswire (1575): A brief skirmish between English and Scottish wardens that highlighted the instability of the marches.
Clan Strongholds
Reiver families built fortified homes called bastle houses. These were thick-walled farmhouses with living quarters upstairs and livestock below, designed to withstand raiding parties. Some key strongholds included:
- Gilnockie Tower (Armstrong)
- Mangerton Tower (Elliot)
- Lochwood Tower (Johnstone)
- Hoddom Castle (Maxwell)
- Netherby Hall (Graham)
Each tower was a symbol of dominance, surveillance, and reprisal readiness.
Symbols and Identity
Each clan had distinctive markings, symbols, or heraldic devices, although Border identity was shaped more by reputation than regalia. Pride was found in hardiness, horse-riding skill, cunning, and martial ability. Many families kept tally sticks or tokens of raids and retaliations, and oral tradition preserved clan memory better than any coat of arms.
Last Days and Legacy
James VI of Scotland, upon becoming James I of England in 1603, took swift and brutal action to pacify the Borders. Reiving was outlawed. Executions, forced relocations, and the dismantling of bastle houses followed. Hundreds of Reivers were deported to Ireland during the Plantation of Ulster, where their descendants played roles in later Irish and British military history.
Despite efforts to erase their memory, the legacy of the Reivers persists. Words like “blackmail” have Reiver roots (from the tribute paid for protection), and many families in the UK and America trace their ancestry to Reiver clans. Some of the fiercest Union cavalrymen in the American Civil War claimed Border Reiver descent.
In the Modern Day
The Borders region now embraces its Reiver history. Museums, festivals, and heritage trails across Cumbria, Northumberland, Roxburghshire, and Dumfriesshire commemorate the era. Towns like Hawick, Langholm, and Carlisle host reenactments and explore clan histories.
The story of the Reivers is not one of romantic outlawry, but of how local identity, geography, and centuries of political neglect can forge a distinct and enduring form of warfare. Their influence on guerrilla tactics, regional defence, and cross-border raiding remains a powerful case study in how war is shaped not just by nations, but by families and frontiers.
